This thesis presents a new perspective on the study of past farm success and failure; it builds on the concepts of resilience and vulnerability to construct a theoretical framework which integrates environmental, historical and ethnographical data. The basic framework establishes that the resilience or vulnerability of a social-ecological system is a function of three factors: i) the exposure of the system to external (environmental) stresses, ii) the sensitivity of the system to these stresses and iii) the ability of the human component of the system to respond to them. The research focused on the component of human capacity of response (the sum of coping and adaptive capacity) within this framework. The temporal scale of the study was the 18th century, although reference is made to earlier periods for comparison. The location of the study area was Mývatnssveit, a livestock-based farming community in northern Iceland, while the spatial scale of the study is that of individual farms in the area. The results showed that successful farms had a higher capacity of response than failed farms, and that this was conferred by a greater availability and quality of resources, including human resources, natural resources and productive resources (those directly involved in agriculture). Human resources were assessed by records of number of servants per farm and by evidence of learning/knowledge transfer obtained via micromorphological analyses of home-field soils. Natural resources considered to be of particular importance were fish and eggs. Indicators of productive resources included tax value, land rent, livestock numbers and phosphorus content in home-fields. The latter revealed that the soil condition pre-settlement was linked to its post-settlement quality. An analysis of present day perceptions of historical farm abandonment in the area corresponds with the conclusions reached through the data integration in placing the human factor above the environmental one in influencing success and failure. The thesis concludes by highlighting the individuality of the study farms and the historical resilience of the livestock-based farming system. Additionally, areas of potential for future research are identified.

Circular economy has emerged as a new economic paradigm to solve problems of natural resource scarcity and environmental pollution by using resources more efficiently and designing products to minimize waste. This study examines the potential of circular economy to enable the achievement of sustainable development and the Sustainable Development Goals in Europe. This thesis, through a qualitative content analysis of four overarching European reports related to circular economy strategies, uses a social-ecological systems perspective to: (a) analyze how the three aspects of sustainable development are addressed in the reports and (b) pointing out at missing elements in the European circular economy project that could hinder the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals. Circular economy is a good start to change habits in terms of recycling, reusing and repairing but it also raises awareness about the link between our level of consumption and production and its impact on the environment. However, the results of this study show that the link between Sustainable Development Goals and circular economy is weak and that the economic aspects are highlighted in all the reports to the detriment of environmental and social aspects. As a consequence, the current application of circular economy in Europe does not provide systemic and structural changes, fails to address the root of the problem and reflects a weak vision of sustainability.

A literatura que descreve os efeitos locais de empreendimentos hidrelétricos tem recebido contribuições importantes nos últimos anos. Esses trabalhos, contudo, lançam perspectivas disciplinares sobre essa problemática. O presente estudo busca compreender tais efeitos de maneira integrada, partindo de uma perspectiva sistêmica associada à teoria da resiliência em sistemas socioecológicos. Para tal, adota o caso da usina hidrelétrica de Barra Grande, analisando de que forma a dinâmica do sistema socioecológico local diretamente afetado pela barragem transformou-se na época de sua implantação. Assim, o sistema socioecológico local fora conceitualmente modelado e caracterizado para todo o ciclo de implantação da usina de Barra Grande, por meio da coleta de dados e informações primários e secundários. Como principais resultados, estão a concentração de alterações mais significativas nas proximidades do eixo da barragem, a criação de novos atratores para o sistema econômico local, a profunda alteração de aspectos do sistema social e a depleção da resiliência dos ecossistemas afetados pela barragem. / The literature that describes the local effects of undertaking hydropower plants has received important contributions in the past few years. These efforts, however, are based on disciplinary approaches. His study aims to understand the local effects of undertaking hydropower plants in an integrated way, following a systemic approach related to the theory of social-ecological systems resilience. O accomplish that, it is adopted the case of the Barra Grande dam, analyzing the changes in the dynamics of the local social-ecological system directly affected by the dam. The local social-ecological system was conceptualy modeled and designed for the entire projects lifecycle. It was made through collecting primary and secondary data. As maisn results, there are the concentration of significant alterations in the surroundings of the dams axis, the creation of new attractors for the economic system, a deep change in the social systems aspects and the depletion of the resilience of the ecosystems directly affected by the dam.

Vi står inför en mängd osäkerheter, utmaningar och risker, kända och okända, många av vilka är kopplade till globala förändringar. Ny bebyggelse måste planeras att bli långsiktigt hållbar trots framtida förändringar och för att lyckas måste planeringen hantera osäkerheter. Den rådande synen av hållbarhet har resulterat i ett planeringsideal som strävat efter hållbarhet som en vision av en ideal utformning. Forskningen om resiliens ifrågasätter däremot hur något statiskt kan vara hållbart inför osäkerheter och framtida förändringar. För att möta framtida förändringar måste arbetet för hållbarhet fokusera på att öka städers kapacitet att vara resilienta. Städer som är resilienta har kapacitet att anpassa sig till framtida förändringar och samtidigt behålla samma funktion, struktur och identitet. Näringen är ett befintligt verksamhetsområde i Gävle vilket blivit utpekat som lämpligt för en större samlad exploatering. Genom att jämföra Gävle kommuns intention och ambition för Näringen kontra teoretiska principer för ökad resiliens i stadsmiljö syftar studien att undersöka i vilken utsträckning resiliens införlivas i planerings- och utvecklingsprocessen. Intentionerna och ambitionerna jämfördes med teoretiska resiliensprinciper genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av styrdokument och intervjuer med två tjänstemän. Av studiens resultat framgår det att kommunens intentioner och ambitioner i vissa avseenden ligger i linje med principerna för ökad resiliens i städer, men missar viktiga aspekter inom principerna. Kommunen eftersöker nya innovativa sätt att planera på, vilket principerna för resiliens kan bidra med. En problematik som kunde utläsas var att socio-ekonomiska förutsättningar och faktorer prioriteras över naturgeografiska faktorer och förutsättningar vilket kan leda till minskad hållbarhet och resiliens. Implementering av principerna i den kommunala planeringen anses inte i alla lägen vara enkelt till följd av att principerna i vissa aspekter överlappar varandra, beroende på vilken skala som planeras. Gävle kommuns rådande syn av hållbarhet ligger inte heller i linje med synsättet forskningen av resiliens förespråkar, att vi alla lever och verkar i komplexa social-ekologiska system. Resiliens behandlar komplexa teorier och försök till implementering av resiliensprinciper utan förståelse för systems komplexitet kan leda till att utfallet inte blir lyckat. Resiliensprincipen adaptiv planering innehåller potential för kontinuerligt lärande om social-ekologiska system och anses vara den princip som bör prioriteras i praktiken för hållbarhet genom resiliens. / We face a number of uncertainties, challenges and risks, known and unknown, many of which are linked to global changes. Urban development must be planned to become sustainable in the long term despite future changes and to succeed, planning must handle uncertainties. The current view of sustainability has resulted in a planning ideal that strives for sustainability as a vision of an ideal structure and design. The research on resilience question this by asking how something static can be sustainable in the face of uncertainties and future changes. The work towards sustainability must focus on increasing the capacity of cities to be resilient. Cities which are resilient have the capacity to adapt to future changes while retaining the same function, structure and identity. Näringen is an existing industrial area in Gävle which has been designated suitable for a larger urban development exploitation project. The study aims to investigate how resilience is incorporated into the planning and development process of Näringen. The study compared Gävle municipality's intentions and ambitions for the development of Näringen in relation to theoretical principles for increased resilience in urban environment. The comparison between theory and practice was done through a qualitative content analysis of policy documents and interviews with two officials. The findings show that the intentions and ambitions of Gävle municipality in some ways are in line with the principles for increased resilience in cities but miss important aspects within the principles. The municipality strives for novel and innovative ways of planning which the principles for resilience can contribute with. One problem which can lead to reduced sustainability and resilience is that socio-economic prerequisites and conditions are prioritized over natural geographical ones. Implementation of the principles in municipal planning is not easily achieved in all situations because the principles in some respects overlap depending on the scale. Gävle Municipality's view of sustainability is also not in line with the approach that the research of resilience advocates, that we all live and operate in complex social-ecological systems. Resilience deals with complex theories and attempts to implement resilience principles without an understanding for the complexity of systems can lead to an unsuccessful outcome. The resilience principle adaptive planning holds the potential for continuous learning about social-ecological systems and is considered the principle that should be prioritized in planning for sustainability through resilience.

This research analyzed declining resource-based communities in the Rainy River District, Ontario, that is typical of the Canadian middle north, and explored their central features using several qualitative and participatory techniques. This work disengages from traditional demographic-economic analysis of decline and offers an alternative multidimensional interpretation. The analysis centers on the role of networks, diverse forms of capitals and conflicts. Literature on regional development, New Regionalism, social networks, capital, conflict, and complex evolving social systems informed the conceptual framework to guiding this research. Among other findings this research demonstrated that: First, economic-demographic “size type” indicators are insufficient to explain the complex, multidimensional, network-based, conflictive and highly politicized nature of decline. Policies based on these type of indicators are misleading and can reinforce the path dependence process of single-industry rural communities. Second, networks, capital and conflicts can be significant in the process of decline. They can speed or slow the process of change. Potentially, they can be transformed and used when planning for decline so as to steer the process toward sustainable rural planning and development. Additional factors identified and proposed for this framework included: learning, interaction, cooperation, connectivity, and psychological and institutional factors restricting rural communities from reacting to decline, and escaping from path dependence. Third, decline should be recognized in order to start a process of planning for decline and rural development. Top-down planning and policy initiatives in the Rainy River District and across North Western Ontario have not recognized a general planning gap and have glossed over the need to approach decline, and rural development generally, using a local perspective and grassroots initiatives of people and communities. Basic elements to plan for decline in rural regions were described. Fourth, rural regions, ethnicity, and power, are insufficiently recognized by New Regionalism theory. Including these elements can benefit the theory and practice of rural planning and development. Analysis of networks and planning is a mutually reinforcing approach, useful for the study and planning of rural areas. Finally, rural decline studies in Canada should pay attention to factors of ethnicity. Significant structural violence against First Nations remains in rural regions.

Land use/cover change (LUCC) is a major force affecting ecosystems and the services theyprovide at local, regional and global levels. Traditionally, LUCC has been approached as aseries of linear and unidirectional single cause–effect processes, but it is now increasinglyincorporating notions from complex systems to enrich this view. This study explores thepotential benefits of using the concept of regime shifts to understand LUCC. A globalcropland cover dataset was analyzed to empirically identify patterns that suggest theexistence of alternate regimes. Results indicate that in some countries cropland-dominatedand (semi)wild landscapes likely represent alternate social-ecological regimes.Furthermore, results suggest that a theoretical feedback relating market access andagglomeration of economic activates plays a strong role in maintaining these alternate regimes in some contexts. These results highlight the need for LUCC studies to go beyondthe focus on external drivers and environmental template conditions, to incorporate feedback mechanisms and the potential for regime shifts to better understand the nature of LUCC.

This research analyzed declining resource-based communities in the Rainy River District, Ontario, that is typical of the Canadian middle north, and explored their central features using several qualitative and participatory techniques. This work disengages from traditional demographic-economic analysis of decline and offers an alternative multidimensional interpretation. The analysis centers on the role of networks, diverse forms of capitals and conflicts. Literature on regional development, New Regionalism, social networks, capital, conflict, and complex evolving social systems informed the conceptual framework to guiding this research. Among other findings this research demonstrated that: First, economic-demographic “size type” indicators are insufficient to explain the complex, multidimensional, network-based, conflictive and highly politicized nature of decline. Policies based on these type of indicators are misleading and can reinforce the path dependence process of single-industry rural communities. Second, networks, capital and conflicts can be significant in the process of decline. They can speed or slow the process of change. Potentially, they can be transformed and used when planning for decline so as to steer the process toward sustainable rural planning and development. Additional factors identified and proposed for this framework included: learning, interaction, cooperation, connectivity, and psychological and institutional factors restricting rural communities from reacting to decline, and escaping from path dependence. Third, decline should be recognized in order to start a process of planning for decline and rural development. Top-down planning and policy initiatives in the Rainy River District and across North Western Ontario have not recognized a general planning gap and have glossed over the need to approach decline, and rural development generally, using a local perspective and grassroots initiatives of people and communities. Basic elements to plan for decline in rural regions were described. Fourth, rural regions, ethnicity, and power, are insufficiently recognized by New Regionalism theory. Including these elements can benefit the theory and practice of rural planning and development. Analysis of networks and planning is a mutually reinforcing approach, useful for the study and planning of rural areas. Finally, rural decline studies in Canada should pay attention to factors of ethnicity. Significant structural violence against First Nations remains in rural regions.

Sacred sites in Ysyk-Köl area of Kyrgyzstan represent areas of land and bodies of water which are spiritually and culturally meaningful for local people. The present study mapped about 130 sacred sites, which are conserved-through-use by local communities and represent traditional model of conservation. The entire territory of Ysyk-Köl region is a formal protected area as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Thus, sacred sites, as traditional model of community conserved area, are embedded in the formal government-run Biosphere Reserve. The study scrutinizes how these two models of conservation (sacred sites and the Biosphere Reserve) co-exist in the same territory and interact with each other. Results indicate that these two models are parallel. However, recognition of sacred sites can improve formal conservation by: a) providing a complementary culture-based set of incentives for conservation, b) fostering a biocultural approach, and c) serving as a communication hub for YKBR managers and local communities. / February 2016

The adaptive cycle metaphor provides insight into how and why social-ecological systems change. Literature on 'resilience thinking' has built upon this foundation and further developed the concepts of resilience, adaptation, and transformation to describe social-ecological system behavior. The resilience-thinking literature also describes systems that do not change, even when such change is desirable, as being in a trapped state. However, relatively little research has explored why such systems are trapped and how to free them. This thesis is the product of doctoral research which resolves how to identify, evaluate, and free a system caught in a maladaptive system trap. The study setting is water management in Grenada, a small island developing state in the southeastern Caribbean. Four research questions guide this study: (1) To what extent is Grenadian water management in a trap?, (2) To what extent is Grenadian water management transformable?, (3) Do current and recent interventions effectively foster or utilize transformability?, and (4) Which interventions should be pursued to facilitate transformation of water management in Grenada?. The study is informed by literature on social-ecological systems and integrated water resources management. Methodologically, the study is an explanatory single-case study of water management in Grenada, conducted from 2012 to 2013. The study utilizes data from semi-structured interviews (n=19), a questionnaire (n=180), a document review (n>200), and observation. The general strategy was to evaluate attempts to transform Grenadian water management within the 3-phase transformation framework described in the resilience-thinking literature. 'Points of failure' in transformation are defined as the cause(s) of a trap, and interventions to relieve the points of failure are proposed. Results indicate Grenadian water management is in a rigidity trap, although it exhibits some capacity to transform. A key point of failure of attempts to transform the Grenadian water sector into an integrated and holistic management system has been an inability to seize windows of opportunity to pass key legislation. I conclude the primary cause for this failure is poor fit among the problem, as perceived by various stakeholders, the proposed solution prescribed by water sector reform proponents, and political reality. In addition, reform proponents focus on advocating for reform to water sector professionals and do little to broker passage of legislation politically. Finally, reform proponents also assume legislation will be effectively implemented, which is not certain. Contributions specific to the Grenadian setting include a post-mortem on why efforts to reform the water sector have failed, described above. Five recommendations are made for future interventions to foster transformation of Grenadian water management: (1) engage residents as part of a vision to create political pressure for proposed solutions, (2) frame the problem with substantial resident input and focus, (3) craft solutions which take advantage of political realities such as funding restrictions, (4) anticipate and prepare for crises, and (5) enlist one or more people or organizations to serve as brokers. Empirical contributions include support for the three-streams framework of seizing windows of opportunity as fundamental to explain transformation of social-ecological systems. The primary conceptual contribution is the development of resilience thinking to illuminate ways to free trapped systems. I begin by providing a nomenclature to quantify and describe traps, which includes the type of trap, the degree of persistence and undesirability of the trap, and recent changes in these properties. Then, I develop a framework to assess transformability of a given system based on the existing 3-phase framework of transformation. When applied empirically, this framework illuminates points of failure of transformation, which I define as the cause of a given trap. Once identified, specific strategies can be devised to foster transformation and to break free of a trap.

In landscape ecology, it is widely acknowledged that landscape is as much a social and cultural entity as it is biophysical, and that people and place must be jointly considered to fully understand the evolution of spatial pattern. This thesis explores the overlapping biophysical and human dimensions of landscape in the context of an (i) ecological and (ii) ethnoecological classification on the local landscape of the Tayal Mrqwang indigenous people in north central Taiwan. The goal of the ecological classification was to identify ecosystem types for a ~3000 acre landscape by relating vegetation patterns to gradients of physiography, soil, humidity, light, pixel brightness, and human modification across 76 transect sample plots. Using multivariate analyses, seven ecosystem types were identified, ranging from xeric through submesic pine, bamboo, alder, and laurel forests to mesic evergreen broadleaved and mixed coniferous forests. At the broad scale, ecosystems were distributed along gradients of elevation, soil, humidity and human modification, while factors related to local variability in physiography and soil development were more important at the fine scale (i.e., within elevational ecoregions). Within lower elevation sites in particular, patterns of forest variation and soil development were resonant of ancestral practices, including shifting cultivation, terrace farming, arboriculture, and selective extraction. The objective of the ethnoecological classification was to explore whether the Mrqwang people categorize landscape variation according to systematic or multidimensional knowledge structures. Results of interviews and free-listing exercises revealed an unsystematized classification that recognizes a continuum of forest variation through the intersection of three overlapping categories: history of disturbance, topography and substrate, vegetation. These categories are modified through land tenure and toponyms. The classification appears accommodating of personal experience, and it is theorized that this flexibility results in dynamic knowledge that evolves with time, generating variable characterizations of forest variation rather than formalized categories. The thesis concludes that despite the lack of formalization, the Tayal are nonetheless highly cognizant of how current forest variation coincides with the environment and the activities of their ancestors. This knowledge represents immense local expertise and must not be excluded from conservation and co-management projects in the local area. / NSERC CGS-D