The primary goal of the current study was to explore who emerging adults consult regarding their identity issues and to explore the characteristics of emerging adults who consult siblings. Another goal was to examine the advice and support of siblings and peers related to the career and educational goals of emerging adults. A mixed method approach was used. The sample consisted of 396 students with a smaller subsample asked to participate in an online discussion forum with their sibling (N = 43) or peers (N = 24). Online discussions were analyzed for concepts and themes related to types of advice or informational support given to aid a sibling or peer in their identity formation process. Participants reported seeking the most advice from friends, parents, significant others, and siblings regarding long term goals and careers. Participants reported seeking advice from siblings the most regarding long term goals. Regarding the demographic and identity formation characteristics of participants who reported frequently consulting siblings, the number of siblings reported was the strongest predictor followed by the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles. Related to patterns found in sibling and peer advice, no differences were found with both groups providing cognitive-emotional and behavioral advice in their feedback posts. Student participants and related siblings ascribed a more important role to siblings over peers in their identity formation processes. The need for further research on siblings as identity agents was discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2011. / March 28, 2011. / Online Discussions, College Students, Identity Agents / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Patrice Iatarola, University Representative; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member; Marsha Rehm, Committee Member.

The role of neighborhood and school environments in adolescent development has been explored over the years, yet few have examined these relationships with an American Indian sample. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of Apache adolescents' sense of safety in their neighborhood and school environments and how this relates to their experience of depressive symptoms and alcohol/marijuana use. This study utilized the 2006 Arizona Youth Survey of 148 adolescents from the San Carlos Apache and Fort Apache Reservations. The findings indicated that neighborhood safety, especially the presence of crime and drug sales, was the strongest predictor of depressive symptoms and alcohol/marijuana use. Implications for future research and work with this population are discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2008. / June 18, 2008. / Neighborhood, American Indian, Depression, Drug Use, School, Context, Safety / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Thesis; Patrice Iatarola, Outside Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member.

In this study I explored the effects of the quality of the father-daughter relationship on the sexual activity of adolescent females. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a representative sample of adolescents, I assessed the odds of a daughter's engaging in sexual intercourse and early vs. delayed onset of sexual activity as predicted by her perceptions of the levels of support and harshness received from her father. I used binary logistic regression and found partial support for the hypotheses. Specifically, increases in the level of perceived paternal harshness were related to increases in the likelihood that daughters engaged in sexual activity before the age of 15 (early onset). Perceived paternal support was not significantly associated with adolescent daughter sexual activity. Study limitations and strengths, implications for clinical intervention (especially for marriage and family therapy), and future research directions are also discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2011. / March 30, 2011. / Relationship Quality, Sexual Activity, Adolescent, Daughter, Father Involvement / Includes bibliographical references. / B. Kay Pasley, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce Thyer, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Ann Mullis, Committee Member.

Emerging adults, between ages 18 and 25, experience changes in interpersonal relationships, sexuality, world view, and for some, changes in living arrangements that include college (Arnett, 2001; Lefkowitz, 2005). For many college students, this period of intense exploration and change may include increased susceptibility to engage in high-risk behaviors, including sexual behaviors. (Arnett, 1992; Bradley & Wildman, 2002). Social cognitive theory was used in this study to examine relationships among personal aspects of female emerging adults and their sexual behavior such as sexual attitudes, self-esteem, race, age, and high-risk behaviors in addition to environmental influences such as perceived parental sexual attitudes. Social cognitive theory was a useful framework because it not only considers internal factors involved in individual decision making; it also considers interactions between an individual and their environment. The most prominent predictor of female college students engaging in sexual behavior was engaging in other high-risk behaviors. Risk behaviors also related to sexually permissive attitudes and attitudes relating to safe sexual practice. The sexual knowledge among emerging adult females was not a good predictor of their sexual behavior, nor was self-esteem. Parental attitude related to sexual behavior for sexual permissiveness and sexual practice. Therapists and educators would benefit from a depth of understanding the interpersonal reasoning for sexual decision making. Better assessment tools could be developed, specific treatments could be employed, and educational materials modeled on a more clear understanding of what works and what does not work in understanding sexuality related issues. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2006. / November 4, 2005. / sexual knowledge, sexual attitudes, sexual behavior, emerging adults / Includes bibliographical references. / Ronald L. Mullis, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gary W. Peterson, Outside Committee Member; Mary W. Hicks, Committee Member; Nicholas F. Mazza, Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member.

On March 11, 2004 thirteen terrorists attacked the Madrid commuter rail system, killing 191 people and wounding 1,741 just three days before Spanish elections. The ruling Popular Party led by Spanish Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar blamed the attack on ETA, the Basque separatist group responsible for more than 800 deaths since its founding in 1959. The police investigation quickly concluded that Islamic extremists had perpetrated the terror attack. This conclusion was cemented a day before the election when a video containing a claim of responsibility from al Qaeda was released to the press. The speaker on the videotape stated that the attack was in response to Spanish participation in the Iraq war, a decision that was overwhelmingly unpopular among Spanish voters who turned out the next day at the polls and voted Aznar's Popular Party out of office. The Spanish Socialist Workers Party won and its candidate for Prime Minister, Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero immediately announced his intention to pull Spanish troops out of Iraq. Many analysts and observers concluded that al Qaeda was behind the attack and that it had been timed to coincide with the Spanish election with the intention of unseating the Popular Party and forcing Spanish troops out of Iraq. Although the terrorists clearly aimed to bring about a Spanish troops withdraw from Iraq, to date no evidence has surfaced to suggest that al Qaeda's leadership was in anyway involved in the attack or that it was purposely timed to influence Spain's election. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of International Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 30, 2006. / terrorism, al qaeda, abu dahdah, azizi, spanish terrorism / Includes bibliographical references. / John Kelsay, Professor Directing Dissertation; Peter Garretson, Committee Member; Will Moore, Committee Member.

The main purpose of the present study was to examine the influences of parental relationship instability, parental relationship happiness, and parent-child relationships on young adult intimate relationship outcomes. The effects of parental relationship instability were explored by using two different family groups: biological families and stepfather families. Data from the all three waves of the National Survey of Families and Households was used for this study. Structural Equation Modeling was used as the analysis method to examine the relationships between the variables of interest. Based on Ecological Systems Theory, it was hypothesized that low parental relationship instability, high parental marital happiness, and frequent involvement and high quality in parent-child relationships would determine positive outcomes in young adult intimate relationships. It was also hypothesized that there would be mediating relationships between the family variables and young adults' intimate relationship outcomes. The findings partially supported Ecological Systems Theory in that the various family context and processes variables were significantly related to children's young adult intimate relationship happiness and stability. However, there was no support for the mediating hypotheses. Parents' marital happiness emerged the largest, significant predicator of young adult intimate relationship outcomes in both family groups. Additionally for the two family groups, different causal pathways of the family variables were illustrated through Structural Equation Modeling. Important contributions of the current study include a better understanding of the long-term influences of parental relationship instability, parental relationship happiness, and parent-child relationships on emerging adults' intimate relationship outcomes. Implications for researchers, clinicians, and educators are presented. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2009. / March 31, 2009. / Stepfamilies, Parent-Child Relationships, Relationship Happiness, Relationship Stability, Young Adult Intimate Relationships / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas A. Cornille, Professor Directing Dissertation; Neil Abell, Outside Committee Member; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member; Robert E. Lee, III, Committee Member.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between attitudes toward research engagement, research norms, perceived control over the ability to conduct research and research engagement among family and consumer sciences (FCS) faculty in post-secondary institutions in Jamaica. The literature shows that in the family and consumer sciences discipline, faculty members are predominantly female. Females in higher education worldwide have not been as productive as males in terms of research output, at least according to current institutional definitions and quantitative measures. Women tend to have higher teaching loads, constitute a smaller proportion of tenured faculty, and are less likely to attain the professor rank. Additionally, women are more likely to be employed by non-research-intensive institutions. The Theory of Planned Behavior provided the framework for addressing the research question. The sample consisted of 39 female FCS educators, that is, 75% of all FCS educators in 11 post-secondary institutions in Jamaica. They were administered a 62 item, researcher-devised online questionnaire. More than two-thirds (69%) of the respondents had engaged in research. The average number of research products over the five year period was 3.54. There were no significant associations between the educators' attitudes toward research engagement and their actual engagement in research; between their perceptions of norms regarding research engagement and engagement in research; nor between their perceived control over conducting research and research engagement. Recommendations to improve research engagement among the sample include: implement a FCS program such as that proposed by Nicholls et al. (2004) that allows faculty to mature as researchers; establish research accountability groups with FCS peers or with other university researchers; conduct research as faculty-student teams based on student projects; and encourage institutions to give credence to both quantitative and qualitative research so that FCS faculty are assured of credit for qualitative research they are likely to undertake. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2010. / August 17, 2009. / Jamaica, Family and Consumer Sciences, Attitudes toward Research Engagement, Research Norms, Research Engagement / Includes bibliographical references. / Marsha Rehm, Professor Directing Dissertation; Linda Vinton, University Representative; Penny Ralston, Committee Member.

The concurrent rising rates of two societal concerns, rising rates of obesity along with increasing reports of parental indulgence, make it imperative to look at these issues in tandem. Not only has obesity become a national epidemic, but also weight gain has evolved as a serious issue for emerging adults and college students with long-lasting effects (Wang & Beydoun, 2007). This is especially salient in college women who have been experiencing weight gain at a substantially higher rate than age-matched community women (Holm-Denoma, Joiner, Heatherton, & Vohs, 2008; Hovell, Mewborn, Randle, & Fowler-Johnson, 1985). Additionally, in recent years, parents are spending more time with their children than ever before giving them more opportunities for indulgence to occur (Sayer, Bianchi, & Robinson, 2004). This indulgence may have several negative consequences including difficulty in delaying gratification and taking care of oneself that also may lead to issues with weight gain (Bredehoft, Mennicke, Potter, & Clarke, 1998). Despite the importance of this critical time in which independence and long-term health behaviors are being established, unhealthy weight regulation methods and body image concerns are prevalent among female college students. Disordered eating attitudes and beliefs can have serious psychological and physiological consequences affecting the body mass index (BMI) and body image of female students. In addition, maladaptive eating behaviors and low body image put individuals at higher risk for depression and low life satisfaction (Albertini & Phillips, 1999; Boyes, Fletcher, & Latner, 2007). While exploring the relationship between rising rates of obesity and indulgent parenting, it is important to note the salient changing relationship between mothers and daughters as daughters transition to college. Health behaviors such as eating attitudes and beliefs have been noted in previous research to be similar among mothers and daughters (Elfhag & Linne, 2005). Little is known, however, how health attitudes and beliefs may correlate as the parents' role in the child's health behaviors begin to change. In addition, although it is known that as daughters transition to college, their mothers' influence over their behaviors declines, there is not much literature describing how mother-daughter perceptions about their relationships and behaviors change over time (Fingerman, 2000). Thus, during this time of multiple changes, it is important to study mother-daughter perceptions of their relationship, as well as, health attitudes and beliefs in order to provide a greater understanding of daughters' health behaviors and the occurrence of eating and weight-related problems. The primary theory used in this study was Bandura's social cognitive theory. In order to fully understand the mother-daughter relationship within the family-eating environment, the family ecological perspective was used as the secondary framework in this study. This study had two research aims: First to determine the differences between mother and daughter perceptions of indulgent parenting, frequency of health discussions, and their own internal eating motivations including cognitive restraint and uncontrolled eating. Three hypotheses were proposed: 1.There will be a difference between mothers' and daughters' perceptions of overall indulgent parenting, as well as the categories of indulgent parenting of giving too much, over-nurturing, and providing soft structure as measured by the overindulgence scale and each of its three subscales (Bredehoft et al., 2004). Daughters will report greater parental indulgence than their mothers. 2.There will be a difference between mothers' and daughters' internal eating motivation in terms of cognitive restraint and uncontrolled eating. Whereas, mothers will report higher levels of cognitive restraint than daughters, daughters will report higher uncontrolled eating scores. 3.There will be a difference between mothers' and daughters' reports of health discussion frequency. Mothers will report engaging in health discussions more frequently than daughters. Secondly, the study aimed to examine the influence of indulgent parenting and family health discussions (as perceived by mothers and daughters) on internal (cognitive restraint and uncontrolled) eating motivations and external (significant others and peers) eating motivations upon the outcome variables of BMI, body image, and satisfaction with life while controlling for mother and daughter age. Mother and daughter pairs were selected from the Parental Indulgence of Emerging Adults study. The study participants were recruited from a college-level course and the data collection took place as part of a class assignment. To be eligible for this IRB approved study, both the mother and daughter had to complete the online survey, although other options were available if students and their parents did not want to participate. The total sample consisted of 368 mother-daughter pairs. Both mothers and daughters were asked to complete the questionnaire online. This questionnaire consisted of basic demographic questions, health behavior items, and several scales including the Parent Overindulgence Scale, to measure indulgent parenting, the Family Discussions about Health Scale, to measure frequency of family health discussions, the Cognitive Restraint Scale and Uncontrolled Eating Scale, to measure internal eating motivations, the Relationship and Friend Driven Eating Scales to measure external eating motivations and the Satisfaction with Life Scale to determine daughters' satisfaction with life. In order to test the research hypotheses and questions, various statistical analysis techniques were utilized. The following data analysis plan was employed: For the three hypotheses, paired t-tests were incorporated along with other descriptive data analysis techniques, such as frequency distributions, means, ranges, and standard deviations. To examine the research question, SEM using AMOS 17.0 software was utilized (Arbuckle, 2006). Paired t-tests were conducted to test the associations between mothers' and daughters' perceptions of indulgent parenting, internal eating motivations, and health discussion frequency. Mothers and daughters had significantly different scores for both overall indulgence and over-nurturance with daughters having higher perceptions than mothers, that mothers were indulging and over-nurturing them. No differences were found for giving too much or soft structure. Both cognitive restraint and uncontrolled eating were significantly different, with maternal data indicating higher cognitive restraint scores and daughter data noting higher uncontrolled eating scores. Pearson's correlations indicated that mothers' cognitive restraint was significantly correlated with daughters' cognitive restraint. Mothers' uncontrolled eating was also significantly related to daughters' cognitive restraint. Daughters' uncontrolled eating was not related to either cognitive restraint or uncontrolled eating in mothers. In addition, it was revealed that parents perceived they engaged in more health discussions than their daughters. Further analysis indicated that daughters' weight loss goals influenced their perceived frequency of health discussions, whereas mothers' overall perceptions of health discussion frequency remained the same despite daughters' weight goals. To examine the research question, a measurement model described the proposed correlation model. Fit indices of the measurement model were: chi-square statistic = 20.57, degree of freedom = 12, CFI = 0.989, TLI = 0.891, and RMSEA = 0.044. Due to the good model fit of the measurement model, further analyses could be completed to test the structural model. Modifications indices were used to further refine the model. The chi-square statistic for this model was 96.80 with 63 degrees of freedom. Again CFI, TLI, and RMSEA were evaluated: CFI = .957, TLI = .918, and RMSEA = .038. This model explained 20.7% of the variance in satisfaction with life of college age daughters. Daughters' perceptions of the three subscales of parents' indulgent parenting all had direct relationships with satisfaction with life in the model, in that both giving too much and over-nurturance had positive relationships with satisfaction with life, whereas, daughters' perceptions of soft structure were inversely related to daughters' life satisfaction. In other words, daughters, who believed that their parents gave them too many things, over-nurtured them, and provided them with structure in their lives, perceived greater satisfaction with their lives. The satisfaction with life of daughters was also directly related to their age, body image, and uncontrolled eating. Whereas having a higher body image was positively related to satisfaction with life, uncontrolled eating, and becoming older were inversely related with life satisfaction. Other important findings were related to body image and internal eating motivations. Several variables in the model had relationships with body image, making it a pivotal variable in the model. Parent age, daughters' BMI, and both internal eating motivations (cognitive restraint and uncontrolled eating) were inversely related to body image. Friendship influence on eating motivations had a direct positive relationship with body image. Daughters who perceived their friends influenced their eating behaviors also had higher perceptions of their body image. Parent health discussions were inversely related to daughters' cognitive restraint when eating. The more mothers and daughters talked about health issues, daughters exhibited greater cognitive restraint. These findings confirmed the appropriateness of both social cognitive theory and ecosystemic frameworks for studying parenting, communication, eating motivations, and health outcomes in mothers and daughters. Mothers and daughters reported significantly different levels of cognitive restraint and uncontrolled eating, with mothers exhibiting higher levels of cognitive restraint and daughters exhibiting higher levels of uncontrolled eating. Further analysis noted that mother and daughter cognitive restraint variables were significantly correlated, as were daughters' cognitive restraint and mothers' uncontrolled eating. These results indicated that parental modeling might be one mechanism through which daughters learned their internal eating patterns. Mothers and daughters perceived the frequency in which they engaged in health behaviors differently, with mothers reporting higher discussion frequencies than daughters. Daughters' weight goals were found to influence their perceptions regarding frequency of health discussions indicating that daughters trying to lose weight may be more sensitive to health discussions particularly around dieting and weight loss. The model indicated that greater life satisfaction was related to higher levels of daughters' perceptions of their parents giving them too much and over-nurturing them, as well as, high body image, lower levels of uncontrolled eating, and being younger. Health discussions played an important role with the giving too much construct of indulgent parenting interacting with health discussion frequency to influence both daughters' internal eating motivations and BMI. Daughters' perceptions of indulgence had a greater influence on the overall model than parents' perceptions. This stresses the importance of the daughters' perspectives when examining these variables. Also in the model, friendship influence on eating was positively related to daughters' body image. Daughters may feel that if they conform to the group, they will be more likeable and accepted, thus increasing their perceived body image. In addition, health discussions were related to daughters' cognitive restraint. It is unknown, in this study, whether discussions about health between mothers and daughters were positive or negative, however daughters who were trying to lose weight reported higher frequencies of health discussions. Several implications for future research and professional practice are indicated. As was noted in this study, the sample was predominantly white and only mothers and daughters were included, partially due to the small sample of fathers and sons available in the sample set. More studies need to be done in children and adolescents to examine how their perceptions of their parents' parenting styles influence their health and eating behaviors. Therefore, this study should be replicated using diverse samples. The model utilized in this study provides a starting point for family therapists, family life educators, as well as health professionals such as dietitians and nurses, to guide family life and health education programs for parents and college students. It is important to teach parents about the implications of parental indulgence on the health and life satisfaction of their children. Additionally, health and lifestyle education for emerging adults is essential and can help them attain healthy lifestyle behaviors that will affect them long into the future. Overall, the results of this study indicated that even as daughters begin to transition away from their parents, mothers still play an integral role in their daughters' health behaviors and outcomes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring, 2011. / March 17, 2011. / Satisfaction with life, Mother-daughter relationships, Indulgence, Family health discussions, Eating motivations, College students / Includes bibliographical references. / Carol A. Darling, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Joiner, University Representative; Ann K. Mullis, Committee Member; Penny A. Ralston, Committee Member.

The completed study investigated menstrual hygiene facilities and the related education opportunities presented for female learners in selected primary and secondary schools in the Ocean View area of the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Despite female learners’ school enrolment having improved in the region in recent years, large gender inequality gaps in primary education still exist and are even more evident in secondary education. In South Africa, menstrual hygiene and the inability of female learners to go to school when they are experiencing their periods is not just a sanitation issue, nor is it a physiological one. Rather, it is something that has wider socio-economic implications with historical connotations, given where this country has come from. Furthermore, this study attempted to address some of the gaps in existing, theoretical knowledge and policies, particularly social and educational policy, by investigating how menstruation and puberty-related challenges in the context of poor sanitation and menstrual hygiene facilities were exacerbating gender inequalities in the South African education system. A qualitative research design was used to gain an enriched understanding of the female learners’ perceptions and experiences regarding the state of the menstrual hygiene facilities at their schools and the influence of these facilities on their educational opportunities. This study highlights that menstrual hygiene management continues to receive limited attention in government policies, research priorities, programmes and resource allocation, and the information available to the public tends to be informed by anecdotal evidence. Moreover, most sanitation and hygiene interventions in developing countries are failing to address all needs required for female learners to manage menstruation appropriately in the school environment. Further, sanitation facility design usually does not address the specific needs of women and the girl child. The research findings from the study completed shows that inadequate sanitation and menstrual hygiene facilities impedes the female learners’ ability to make the most of their education opportunities. Consequently, the study suggests that there is a need for a comprehensive social policy approach to address the identified gaps in policies related to menstrual hygiene management in the South African school environment.

Includes bibliographical references. / The South African constitution emphasises the right of all citizens to income security if they are unable to support themselves and their dependents. Within the current context of high unemployment and poverty, this right is even more pertinent. The Disability Grant, being the only grant available to people in their working years has been widely discussed in its role as a method of poverty alleviation as well as functioning as a de facto Chronic Illness Grant and an Unemployment Grant. Although the DG has been well researched and analysed at a policy level, it is still seen to be functioning in its de facto roles and is accepted as being a mistargeted grant. A qualitative research study was conducted and a sample (composed of Policy Informants, South African Social Security Agency staff and Disability Grant Recipients) were interviewed. The Disability Grant was analysed at both a policy and implementation level. The findings revealed flaws in both the Disability Grant Policy as well as its practical implementation. These highlight the need for transformation and a reimagining of social policy.