Social aggression has been widely studied; however, findings have been inconsistent leading to confusion within the current literature. Previous research has linked social aggression to negative outcomes; including poor peer relations, internalizing symptoms, and low levels of empathy; as well as positive attributes, including prosocial behaviors, high social status, and social intelligence. This meta-analysis examined the relationship between social aggression and various correlates, both positive and negative, as well as how age and gender moderate these relationships. With 896 correlations derived from 108 studies (of a total of 107 published articles), the results using the random-effects model for computing overall effect sizes indicated that social aggression is related with maladaptive correlates, such as externalization (r= 0.46), internalization (r = 0.16), negative individual traits (r = 0.32), as well as negative peer relations (r = 0.28). However, findings also suggest that social aggression is associated with popularity (r = 0.22) and social skillfulness (r = 0.16). Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Research indicates that relational aggression, social aggression, and indirect aggression are important predictors and outcomes of social development (Archer & Coyne, 2005). Socially, indirectly, and relationally aggressive behaviors are utilized in order to harm an individual's social status, relationships, and/or social resources (Archer, & Coyne, 2005), but scholars disagree about the extent of the similarities and differences between these subtypes. Previous efforts to understand the distinction between these subtypes of aggression have been limited by how these behaviors have been operationalized and studied. The primary aim of the current study was to develop a self-report measure of these aggressive behaviors for emerging adults by utilizing factor analytic techniques to examine existing and newly created items. A series of five stages was used to code all items into existing theoretical categories of behavior (e.g., social aggression), establish the factor structure of the items, select the best items to measure each factor, test measurement invariance across subgroups (e.g., men and women), ensure strong psychometric properties, and relate the final factor structure to relevant developmental correlates (e.g., depressive symptoms). Three independent samples of emerging adults aged 18 - 29 years (49.51% - 52.33% women; Mage= 25.71 - 26.26) were recruited online through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (sample 1 N = 299; sample 2 N = 299; sample 3 N = 119). Indirect, social, and relational aggression items were selected and adapted from existing self-report measures of these constructs for adults and several new items were created from qualitative interviews with emerging adults. Through a rigorous theoretical, methodological, and statistical approach, the Relational/Social Aggression in Adulthood Measure (RSAAM) was developed. The final factor structure consisted of three factors: Ignoring, Gossip, and Relational Manipulation. The three factors demonstrated measurement invariance across gender and educational groups and strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Purely relationally manipulative behaviors were distinct from other, related behaviors (i.e., ignoring, gossip) and were also differentially related to developmental correlates. Findings suggest that it may be advantageous for researchers to move beyond broad theoretical definitions of relational and social aggression and instead focus on the specific aggressive behaviors being enacted.

Research indicates that relational aggression, social aggression, and indirect aggression are important predictors and outcomes of social development (Archer & Coyne, 2005). Socially, indirectly, and relationally aggressive behaviors are utilized in order to harm an individual’s social status, relationships, and/or social resources (Archer, & Coyne, 2005), but scholars disagree about the extent of the similarities and differences between these subtypes. Previous efforts to understand the distinction between these subtypes of aggression have been limited by how these behaviors have been operationalized and studied. The primary aim of the current study was to develop a self-report measure of these aggressive behaviors for emerging adults by utilizing factor analytic techniques to examine existing and newly created items. A series of five stages was used to code all items into existing theoretical categories of behavior (e.g., social aggression), establish the factor structure of the items, select the best items to measure each factor, test measurement invariance across subgroups (e.g., men and women), ensure strong psychometric properties, and relate the final factor structure to relevant developmental correlates (e.g., depressive symptoms). Three independent samples of emerging adults aged 18 – 29 years (49.51% –52.33% women; Mage= 25.71 - 26.26) were recruited online through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (sample 1 N = 299; sample 2 N = 299; sample 3 N = 119). Indirect, social, and relational aggression items were selected and adapted from existing self-report measures of these constructs for adults and several new items were created from qualitative interviews with emerging adults. Through a rigorous theoretical, methodological, and statistical approach, the Relational/Social Aggression in Adulthood Measure (RSAAM) was developed. The final factor structure consisted of three factors: Ignoring, Gossip, and Relational Manipulation. The three factors demonstrated measurement invariance across gender and educational groups and strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Purely relationally manipulative behaviors were distinct from other, related behaviors (i.e., ignoring, gossip) and were also differentially related to developmental correlates. Findings suggest that it may be advantageous for researchers to move beyond broad theoretical definitions of relational and social aggression and instead focus on the specific aggressive behaviors being enacted.

This study seeks to explicate the impact of sex and gender in the relationships among attachment, romantic jealousy, and aggression. Attachment theory (e.g., Bowlby, 1969) posits that unique attachment styles develop based on experiences with primary caregiver(s). These attachment styles (e.g., secure, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful) are enduring, and come to define attachment in adult romantic relationships (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1992; Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Attachment theory argues that differences in jealousy in adult romantic relationships are a function of attachment style (e.g., Guerrero, 1998). Similarly, attachment frameworks explain aggression (e.g., physical, verbal, and indirect/social/relational) as a function of attachment style, suggesting that these constructs (both aggression and jealousy) are borne from early childhood experiences. Theories that posit sex and gender differences, however, argue that aggression and jealousy are rooted in biological (i.e., sex-linked), evolutionary (i.e., adaptive), and social (i.e., learned) explanations of how men and women differ.This study aims to examine these theoretical perspectives in an attempt to further understand how differences between the two (attachment and sex/gender theories) can be explained. Results from this study indicate that sex and gender are unique, and do have differential effects on the relationships among attachment, aggression, and romantic jealousy in romantic relationships. Though the moderating effects of sex and gender are not always strong, findings from this study suggest that biology, evolution, and socialization likely interact and influence variability in attachment, aggression, and romantic jealousy.

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There are studies that found parental psychological control was related to children’s antisocial behavior (e.g., Kuppens, Grietens, Onghena, & Michiels, 2009; Soenes, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Duriez, & Niemiec, 2008) and other psychological outcomes such as self-esteem and depressive symptoms (e.g., Costa, Soenens, Gugliandolo, Cuzzocrea, & Larcan, 2015; Inguglia et al., 2016; Kline, Killoren, & Alfaro, 2016); however, it is hard to find studies examining how all those variables are dynamically related. The current study aims to examine if parental psychological control during adolescence is related to children’ antisocial behaviors (e.g., social/relational aggression) during college as well as if this association is mediated by children’s social self-esteem and/or depressive symptoms. In addition to examining the dynamic among these variables, the current study is expected to contribute by examining the role of paternal psychological control as well as maternal psychological control. The majority of studies of parental psychological control and children’s outcomes only focus on maternal psychological control findings (e.g., Valdes, Laursen, guimond, Harti, & Denner, 2016). Also, the current study would fill the gap in the existing studies in the matter of ages of children. A number of studies of parental psychological control have mainly been conducted with relatively younger aged children; very few studies examine the development of college students related to parental psychological control (e.g., Kline, Killoren, & Alfaro, 2016). Methods & Results Four hundred two undergraduate college students in the south of the U.S. participated in the current study by completing a survey (female = 51% and male = 49%). They are mainly White (80.3%) and 91 percent were between 19 and 25 years of age (M = 22.01 years; SD = .2.65). Parental Psychological Control during Adolescence was created by calculating the mean of a total of 21 items (α = .95 for maternal/α = .91 for paternal). The example questions are “In general, my mother/father was less friendly with me, if I did not see things her way.” College Students’ Social Self-Esteem was measured with 8 items (α = .82). The example questions are: “I am easy to like.” College Students’ Depressive Symptoms were measured by calculating the mean of a total 20 items (α = .93). The example questions are: In the past week….“I could not shake off the blues.” Relationally/Socially Aggressive Behaviors were measured by 10 items (α = .79), such as “When I am frustrated with my partner/colleague/friend, I give that person the silent treatment.” Structural Equation Model was used to examine the mediation of social esteem and depressive symptoms between parental psychological control and children’s social/relational aggressive behaviors (see the Table 1 for descriptive statistics of the variables). As seen in Figure 1, there were indirect significant positive associations between maternal psychological control and antisocial behaviors via depressive symptoms; however, paternal psychological control was directly positively associated with antisocial behaviors as well as indirectly associated with antisocial behaviors via social esteem. More findings, interpretations, and limitations of the current study will be discussed at the conference.

The purpose of the project was to explore sex and grade differences observed in RISA (a term used to refer collectively to relational, indirect, and social aggression). Three theories used to explain sex and grade differences, namely, gender socialization theory (Bjorkqvist, 1994;Lagerspetz & Bjorkqvist, 1994; Lagerspetz, Bjorkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988), target-value theory(Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Lagerspetz et al, 1988; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995),and symbolic capital theory (Campbell, 1993; Cashdan, 1997; Eckert, 1990; Horney 1934a, 1934b, 1934c) were reviewed, expanded upon, and tested. Theories were tested using questionnaires; however, a small subset of participants also completed individual interviews to add greater depth to information provided by the quantitative data. A second purpose of the project was to use a measure that represents the diversity of RISA items found in other measures currently used by researchers since research has suggested inconsistencies in findings may be related to item composition. Participants were 521 (301 girls and 220 boys) in grades six (n = 224), seven (n = 224) and eight (n = 73) from various Canadian schools (average age of 12.2 years) who completed the questionnaires. From this sample, 28 students completed individual interviews. Results indicated that boys and girls did not differ in regard to self-reported use of RISA; however, interviews and peer nominations indicated that girls have the reputation for engaging in RISA more frequently than boys. Post-hoc analyses indicated that the appearance of sex differences in RISA may be influenced by item choice as some items on the self-report measure were more highly reported by boys, while others were more likely to be reported by girls. There was not a great deal of support for any of the theories tested. Results indicated that the pattern of connections for predictors of RISA frequently did not differ by sex. Factors like perceived risk of or discomfort with using aggression, affective reactions to relationship threats, and care about ones own or a peers performance in a number of life domains were connected to RISA for both sexes.

The purpose of the project was to explore sex and grade differences observed in RISA (a term used to refer collectively to relational, indirect, and social aggression). Three theories used to explain sex and grade differences, namely, gender socialization theory (Bjorkqvist, 1994;Lagerspetz & Bjorkqvist, 1994; Lagerspetz, Bjorkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988), target-value theory(Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Lagerspetz et al, 1988; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995),and symbolic capital theory (Campbell, 1993; Cashdan, 1997; Eckert, 1990; Horney 1934a, 1934b, 1934c) were reviewed, expanded upon, and tested. Theories were tested using questionnaires; however, a small subset of participants also completed individual interviews to add greater depth to information provided by the quantitative data. A second purpose of the project was to use a measure that represents the diversity of RISA items found in other measures currently used by researchers since research has suggested inconsistencies in findings may be related to item composition. Participants were 521 (301 girls and 220 boys) in grades six (n = 224), seven (n = 224) and eight (n = 73) from various Canadian schools (average age of 12.2 years) who completed the questionnaires. From this sample, 28 students completed individual interviews. Results indicated that boys and girls did not differ in regard to self-reported use of RISA; however, interviews and peer nominations indicated that girls have the reputation for engaging in RISA more frequently than boys. Post-hoc analyses indicated that the appearance of sex differences in RISA may be influenced by item choice as some items on the self-report measure were more highly reported by boys, while others were more likely to be reported by girls. There was not a great deal of support for any of the theories tested. Results indicated that the pattern of connections for predictors of RISA frequently did not differ by sex. Factors like perceived risk of or discomfort with using aggression, affective reactions to relationship threats, and care about ones own or a peers performance in a number of life domains were connected to RISA for both sexes.