Markets have an important role to play in advancing an improved understanding of international trading relationships. Two most important economic issues, which contribute to improved national welfare and ensure long-run competitive market equilibrium in international markets, are market integration and market efficiency. To provide softwood lumber markets related information to the policy makers, economic analyses relating market integration and market efficiency of the combined markets of Canada and the US have been conducted. The economic analyses include: (i) testing cointegration of prices among North American softwood lumber markets; (ii) identifying price leading markets in long-run price structure of these cointegrated markets; (iii) examining the degree of market integration among these markets; and (iv) testing the efficiency of spatial arbitrage among these markets. First, the price linkages in the North American softwood lumber markets have been explored over different trade regimes. The results indicate that market integration is affected by product aggregation of data. Further investigations of market integration are, therefore, limited to homogeneous softwood lumber product markets. Second, oligopsonistic pricing behavior of traders is identified as the possible reason for imperfect competition among Douglas Fir product markets, while imperfect competition among the markets of Spruce-Pine-Fir and Hem Fir products can not be explained by this behavior. Third, a comprehensive picture of the adherence to price parity is formulated by evaluating the magnitude and persistence of deviations from equilibrium relation of prices. It is found that large volumes of trade, product substitutability, lower prices, and certainty of trade are the factors which contribute to higher degree of market integration among North American softwood lumber product markets. Finally, the inter-temporal shifts in regime probabilities of competitive market equilibrium are assessed over different trade regimes. It is found that lower transaction costs, large volumes of trade, short distances between markets, and certainty of trade contribute to high market efficiency among softwood lumber product markets of North America.

S3 (Softwood Sawmill Simulator) is a sawmill simulation system for modeling the operations of Pacific Northwest softwood lumber mills. S3 consists of three main parts. The first part is the framework for construction of the sawmill layout. The second part focuses on individual machine centers, their process and down times, and their interconnections. The third part consists of databases for raw material and final products. S3 inputs process logic from external data files. All parts are integrated in an object-oriented framework. The system was developed using the object-oriented environment, Actor. All data input and output are through database files in dBASE IV format. S3 can model a sawmill represented by the machine center and connection types defined in S3. The size of the model is controlled by the Actor programming environment. The construction of a sawmill model is demonstrated. / Graduation date: 1993

Biocatalysts are important tools for harnessing the potential of wood fibres since they can perform specific reactions with low environmental impact. Challenges to bioconversion technologies as applied to wood fibres include low accessibility of plant cell wall polymers and the heterogeneity of plant cell walls, which makes it difficult to predict conversion efficiencies. White-rot fungi are among the most efficient degraders of plant fibre (lignocellulose), capable of degrading cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Phanerochaete carnosa is a white-rot fungus that, in contrast to many white-rot fungi that have been studied to date, was isolated almost exclusively from fallen coniferous trees (softwood). While several studies describe the lignocellulolytic activity of the hardwood-degrading, model white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, the lignocellulolytic activity of P. carnosa has not been investigated. An underlying hypothesis of this thesis is that P. carnosa encodes enzymes that are particularly well suited for processing softwood fibre, which is an especially recalcitrant feedstock, though a major resource for Canada. Moreover, given the phylogenetic similarity of P. carnosa and P. chrysosporium, it is anticipated that the identification of pertinent enzymes for softwood degradation can be more easily conducted. In particular, this project describes the characterization of P. carnosa in terms of the growth conditions that support lignocellulolytic activity, the effect of enzymes secreted by P. carnosa on the chemistry of softwood feedstocks, and the characterization of the corresponding secretome using proteomic techniques. Through this study, cultivation methods for P. carnosa were established and biochemical assays for protein activity and quantification were developed. Analytical methods, including FTIR and ToF-SIMS were used to characterize wood samples at advancing stages of decay, and revealed preferential degradation of lignin in the early stages of growth on all softwoods analyzed. Finally, an in depth proteomic analysis of the proteins secreted by P. carnosa on spruce and cellulose established that similar sets of enzyme activities are elicited by P. carnosa grown on different lignocellulosic substrates, albeit to different expression levels.

Markets have an important role to play in advancing an improved understanding of international trading relationships. Two most important economic issues, which contribute to improved national welfare and ensure long-run competitive market equilibrium in international markets, are market integration and market efficiency. To provide softwood lumber markets related information to the policy makers, economic analyses relating market integration and market efficiency of the combined markets of Canada and the US have been conducted. The economic analyses include: (i) testing cointegration of prices among North American softwood lumber markets; (ii) identifying price leading markets in long-run price structure of these cointegrated markets; (iii) examining the degree of market integration among these markets; and (iv) testing the efficiency of spatial arbitrage among these markets. First, the price linkages in the North American softwood lumber markets have been explored over different trade regimes. The results indicate that market integration is affected by product aggregation of data. Further investigations of market integration are, therefore, limited to homogeneous softwood lumber product markets. Second, oligopsonistic pricing behavior of traders is identified as the possible reason for imperfect competition among Douglas Fir product markets, while imperfect competition among the markets of Spruce-Pine-Fir and Hem Fir products can not be explained by this behavior. Third, a comprehensive picture of the adherence to price parity is formulated by evaluating the magnitude and persistence of deviations from equilibrium relation of prices. It is found that large volumes of trade, product substitutability, lower prices, and certainty of trade are the factors which contribute to higher degree of market integration among North American softwood lumber product markets. Finally, the inter-temporal shifts in regime probabilities of competitive market equilibrium are assessed over different trade regimes. It is found that lower transaction costs, large volumes of trade, short distances between markets, and certainty of trade contribute to high market efficiency among softwood lumber product markets of North America.

Biocatalysts are important tools for harnessing the potential of wood fibres since they can perform specific reactions with low environmental impact. Challenges to bioconversion technologies as applied to wood fibres include low accessibility of plant cell wall polymers and the heterogeneity of plant cell walls, which makes it difficult to predict conversion efficiencies. White-rot fungi are among the most efficient degraders of plant fibre (lignocellulose), capable of degrading cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Phanerochaete carnosa is a white-rot fungus that, in contrast to many white-rot fungi that have been studied to date, was isolated almost exclusively from fallen coniferous trees (softwood). While several studies describe the lignocellulolytic activity of the hardwood-degrading, model white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, the lignocellulolytic activity of P. carnosa has not been investigated. An underlying hypothesis of this thesis is that P. carnosa encodes enzymes that are particularly well suited for processing softwood fibre, which is an especially recalcitrant feedstock, though a major resource for Canada. Moreover, given the phylogenetic similarity of P. carnosa and P. chrysosporium, it is anticipated that the identification of pertinent enzymes for softwood degradation can be more easily conducted. In particular, this project describes the characterization of P. carnosa in terms of the growth conditions that support lignocellulolytic activity, the effect of enzymes secreted by P. carnosa on the chemistry of softwood feedstocks, and the characterization of the corresponding secretome using proteomic techniques. Through this study, cultivation methods for P. carnosa were established and biochemical assays for protein activity and quantification were developed. Analytical methods, including FTIR and ToF-SIMS were used to characterize wood samples at advancing stages of decay, and revealed preferential degradation of lignin in the early stages of growth on all softwoods analyzed. Finally, an in depth proteomic analysis of the proteins secreted by P. carnosa on spruce and cellulose established that similar sets of enzyme activities are elicited by P. carnosa grown on different lignocellulosic substrates, albeit to different expression levels.

Bioethanol from lignocellulose is expected to be the most likely fuel alternative in the near future. SEKAB E-Technology in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden develops the technology of the 2nd generation ethanol production; to produce ethanol from lignocellulosic raw material. The objective of this master’s thesis was to achieve a better knowledge of the potential and limitations of separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) as a process concept for the 2nd generation ethanol production. The effects of enzyme concentration, temperature and pH on the glucose concentration in the enzymatic hydrolysis were investigated for pretreated spruce at 10% DM using a multiple factor design. Enzyme concentration and temperature showed significant effects on the glucose concentration, while pH had no significant effect on the concentration in the tested interval of pH 4.5-5.5. To obtain the maximum glucose concentration (46.4 g/l) for a residence time of 48 h, the optimal settings within the studied parameter window are a temperature of 45.7⁰C and enzyme concentration of 15 FPU/g substrate. However, a higher enzyme concentration would probably further increase the glucose concentration. If enzymatic hydrolysis should be performed for very short residence times, e.g. 6 h, the temperature should be 48.1⁰C to obtain maximum glucose concentration. The efficiency of the enzymes was inhibited when additional glucose was supplied to the slurry prior to enzymatic hydrolysis. It could be concluded that end product inhibition by glucose occurs and results in a distinct decrease in glucose conversion. No clear conclusions could be drawn according to different techniques for slurry and enzymes, i.e. batch and fed-batch, in the enzymatic hydrolysis process. Investigations of the fermentability of the hydrolysate revealed that the fermentation step in SHF is problematic. Inhibition of the yeast decrease the fermentation efficiency and it is therefore difficult to achieve the 4% ethanol limit. Residence time for enzymatic hydrolysis (48 h) and fermentation (24 h) need to be prolonged to achieve a sufficient SHF process. However, short processing times are a key parameter to an economically viable industrial process and to prolong the residence times should therefore not be seen as a desirable alternative. SHF as a process alternative in an industrial bioethanol plant has both potential and limitations. The main advantage is the possibility to separately optimize the process steps, especially to be able to run the enzymatic hydrolysis at an optimal temperature. Although, it is important to include all the process steps in the optimization work. The fermentation difficulties together with the end product inhibition are two limitations of the SHF process that have to be improved before SHF is a preferable alternative in a large scale bioethanol plant.

Bioethanol is an appealing alternative to petroleum-based liquid fuel due to drivers such as environmental regulations and government mandates. Second generation lignocellulosic feedstocks are abundant, but their resistance to hydrolysis continues to be problematic. Different pretreatments have been proposed to increase cellulose reactivity. Softwood pine autohydrolyzed at different severities was subjected to further treatment to increase fibre reactivity. Liquid hot water is most effective at removing barriers, with the highest increase in sugar yield after enzymatic hydrolysis. Alkaline (NaOH) is found to be the worst option compared to dilute acid and organosolv. In addition, higher chemical concentrations and longer treatment times do not guarantee higher enzymatic hydrolysis yield. Process modifications such as fiber washing and multistage enzymatic hydrolysis are observed to be effective at increasing yield. However, more research is required to bring the enzymatic hydrolysis yield to a level where commercialization is feasible.

Bioethanol is an appealing alternative to petroleum-based liquid fuel due to drivers such as environmental regulations and government mandates. Second generation lignocellulosic feedstocks are abundant, but their resistance to hydrolysis continues to be problematic. Different pretreatments have been proposed to increase cellulose reactivity. Softwood pine autohydrolyzed at different severities was subjected to further treatment to increase fibre reactivity. Liquid hot water is most effective at removing barriers, with the highest increase in sugar yield after enzymatic hydrolysis. Alkaline (NaOH) is found to be the worst option compared to dilute acid and organosolv. In addition, higher chemical concentrations and longer treatment times do not guarantee higher enzymatic hydrolysis yield. Process modifications such as fiber washing and multistage enzymatic hydrolysis are observed to be effective at increasing yield. However, more research is required to bring the enzymatic hydrolysis yield to a level where commercialization is feasible.

One of the problems encountered in paper converting is caused by the occurrence of "baggy webs", which essentially is when the tension profile of the paper web is uneven. In an area with low tension the paper is longer, which results in bagginess. The baggy parts can not usually be stretched to even out the tension of the paper web in a converting machine, with the result that runnability problems are likely to occur. The aim of the work described in this thesis was to investigate three particular stages in papermaking, namely drying, calendering and storage, and rank them according to their propensity for inducing baggy webs. The focus was placed on investigating the effects of uneven moisture and grammage profiles on the machine-direction strain difference profile. The largest strain difference occurred when there were systematic thick streaks throughout a reel that formed ridges. Stress relaxation during storage then gave rise to a difference in strain of 0.14% when the ridge height was around 2-3 mm. Thickness variations due to variations in grammage is also a source of moisture variation. A difference in moisture of 5% in the calendering stage resulted in strain differences of about 0.05-0.08%. These strain differences resulted in creases being formed as early on as in the calender nip when differences in both grammage and moisture content were present. Most creases appeared when the moisture difference was 2-8%. The difference in grammage could be large without creases being formed when no differences in moisture content were present. A moisture difference of about 5-6% during drying resulted in a strain difference of 0.1% measured on isotropic samples. The moist area turned into a tight streak when the moisture difference appeared at moisture contents higher than 25%. At moisture contents lower than 20%, on the contrary, the moist area turned into a slack streak. The conclusion drawn is that papermakers should concentrate first and foremost on eliminating variations in grammage, especially if these are systematic. This would also eliminate some variations in moisture content, which would solve more problems.

The energy consumption in the world is increasing at the same time as the fossil fuel resources are limited. This is causing a rising interest in renewable energy sources over the world. To reduce dependency on fossil fuel sources biomass is an excellent alternative.SCA Östrand pulp mill in Timrå is having one of the largest industrial investments made in Sweden. The production capacity will double, resulting in the largest production line for bleached softwood kraft pulp in the world. This level will be reached in 2020. The large expansion has given an interest for a possible localization of a biorefinery in connection with the existing pulp mill. This project was one of the first investigations towards building a biorefinery at SCA Östrand pulp mill.The aim of this project was to investigate liquefaction of bark from spruce from SCA Ortviken paper mill by solvent solubilization of lignin. It was desirable to hydrolyze all cellulose in the media used, with or without the use of solid catalyst. Many different catalysts together with solvents were investigated with the goal to find the best suitable combination to be used in a biorefinery of softwood bark. The investigated solvents were para-toluenesulfonic acid and methanol. Today bark is usually burned for heat recovery at the pulp and paper mill.Analysis of extractives, ash metals and carbohydrates of the bark were performed before any trials. Reactions took place in a 0.3 L stainless steel Parr reactor with high temperature and pressure. Several trials (21 in total) were made with or without catalyst and most of them with methanol as solvent. Two catalysts were studied in more detail, zeolite ZSM-5 and zeolite Beta_250. For ZSM-5 mainly methyl esters and steroid hydrocarbons were formed. Reactions with Beta_250 resulted in monolignols, shorter methyl esters and shorter organic acids compared with ZSM-5.The result showed most liquid product and lowest bark and coke residue from zeolite ZSM-5 and Ni/C-catalyst with 0.16 g respectively 0.21 g bio-oil, both from 1 g of softwood bark.