Road slips are common in Northland Allochthon residual clay soil, and are commonly mitigated using deep soil mixing (DSM). A deficiency in laboratory investigations on Northland Allochthon residual clay and a need for a better understanding of the numerical modelling of DSM columns used to mitigate unstable slopes in this soil type is evident in literature, and has been highlighted by practitioners. This research has aimed to fill aspects of these deficiencies. Field testing and classification tests have provided insight into how the soil varies between sites and with depth, and how in situ testing methods compare to one another. Field testing has also demonstrated that soil property changes around DSM columns have been shown to exist through seismic flat plate dilatometer testing before and after column installation, which has not previously been proven using an in situ method. This is important for practitioners who use DSM to demonstrate the additional soil improvements provided by the columns. The testing of reconstituted soil is fundamental in examining soil behaviour, and this study is the first to examine the triaxial behaviour of reconstituted specimens of Northland Allochthon soil. Laboratory triaxial testing and oedometer testing have allowed for a normalized comparison of the intact strength of Northland Allochthon residual clay soil to its reconstituted state. This work provides an answer to the important question regarding the role of soil structure in this soil type. It was revealed that soil structure results in increased shear strength of the soil, and that this increase is primarily cohesive in nature. The near coincidence of the post-rupture strength of intact specimens with the critical state angle of internal shearing resistance provides support for its use in examining first time slope failures in this soil type. This is an important finding for practitioners, as it demonstrates the value of testing reconstituted specimens, which are much easier to obtain than high quality intact specimens. In addition, relationships between the plasticity index (PI) of the soil and certain soil parameters (and soil behaviour) have been demonstrated to be relevant and useful for this soil type. Soil properties acquired in this study were tabulated along with those from other field sites in Northland Allochthon soil. It was found that there is significant variation between field sites, likely due to varying degrees of weathering, which is an important consideration for practitioners dealing with this soil type. A brief examination of constitutive models for representation of Northland Allochthon residual clay soil have shown that several different models can sufficiently represent the behaviour of this soil. The Mohr-Coulomb model was selected for use in subsequent finite element numerical models. A case study of a road slip at a field site in Northland Allochthon residual clay soil, mitigated using DSM columns, revealed that the use of a pre-existing slip surface after first time failure leads to an improved match between observed field behaviour and the behaviour of the slope as exhibited in a numerical model. This type of failure mechanism has not been previously examined in this soil type, and this case study demonstrates it is a useful approach that should be considered when dealing with second time failure in Northland Allochthon slopes. This numerical model also introduces the replacement ratio method (RRM), a technique used to represent the three dimensional (3D) geometry of the DSM columns in the more commonly used two dimensional (2D) analysis. Examination of laterally loaded DSM columns in plan view, which has not previously been performed in the context of DSM columns, has illustrated how installation effects and column shape influence load displacement curves, and demonstrates the effects of soil arching. This analysis provides practitioners with evidence that improved soil property changes, found to occur around DSM columns, lead to improved DSM column performance. A simplified 3D numerical model of laterally loaded DSM columns, which builds on the ideas developed in the previous two 2D models, has been compared to an identical 2D model. It is shown that the commonly used RRM results in an overestimation of the resisting force provided by the columns as compared to the 3D model. However, this does not necessarily imply that the use of the RRM in an analysis will always result in a safe slope. The degree to which its use will affect the results will depend on the slope geometry, location of the DSM columns, and the type of analysis performed (i.e. factor of safety or deformation based). A modification to the RRM has been proposed. It is recommended that when the DSM column diameter and soil properties are similar to those used in this study, the MRRM developed in this study should be utilized. In circumstances where they differ, it is recommended that practitioners perform a sensitivity analysis using the MRRM developed here as a basis for modifying the RRM in order to determine the extent to which their results are influenced. If the influence is significant, the use of a 3D model should be considered.

Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) is a recently developed deep mixing technique that has grown to include the treatment of sandy and silty soils. This study seeks to investigate the influence of (i) sand-silt ratio, (ii) cement content, (iii) water content and (iv) time on the unconfined compressive strength of saturated cement-treated soil specimens. A new test device and method of specimen reconstitution were conceived in order to obtain a saturated mix of soil and cement. A comparison of results show strength increases non-linearly to decreasing total water-cement ratio, and that this trend is largely independent of sand-silt ratio. Furthermore, strength increases non-linearly with time and is independent of sand-silt ratio. Lastly, it is recommended that the strength be correlated with total water-cement ratio rather than cement content, in order to improve data reporting and provide design guidance to engineering practice.

Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) is a recently developed deep mixing technique that has grown to include the treatment of sandy and silty soils. This study seeks to investigate the influence of (i) sand-silt ratio, (ii) cement content, (iii) water content and (iv) time on the unconfined compressive strength of saturated cement-treated soil specimens. A new test device and method of specimen reconstitution were conceived in order to obtain a saturated mix of soil and cement. A comparison of results show strength increases non-linearly to decreasing total water-cement ratio, and that this trend is largely independent of sand-silt ratio. Furthermore, strength increases non-linearly with time and is independent of sand-silt ratio. Lastly, it is recommended that the strength be correlated with total water-cement ratio rather than cement content, in order to improve data reporting and provide design guidance to engineering practice.

Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) is a recently developed deep mixing technique that has grown to include the treatment of sandy and silty soils. This study seeks to investigate the influence of (i) sand-silt ratio, (ii) cement content, (iii) water content and (iv) time on the unconfined compressive strength of saturated cement-treated soil specimens. A new test device and method of specimen reconstitution were conceived in order to obtain a saturated mix of soil and cement. A comparison of results show strength increases non-linearly to decreasing total water-cement ratio, and that this trend is largely independent of sand-silt ratio. Furthermore, strength increases non-linearly with time and is independent of sand-silt ratio. Lastly, it is recommended that the strength be correlated with total water-cement ratio rather than cement content, in order to improve data reporting and provide design guidance to engineering practice. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Organic soils are formed as deceased plant and animal wildlife is deposited and decomposed in wet environs. These soils have loose structures, low undrained strengths, and high natural water contents, and require improvement before they can be used as foundation materials. Previous researchers have found that the deep mixing method effectively improves organic soils. This study presents a quantitative and reliable method for predicting the strength of one organic soil treated with deep mixing. For this thesis, organic soils were manufactured from commercially available components. Soil-binder mixture specimens with different values of organic matter content, OM, binder content, water-to-binder ratio, and curing time were tested for unconfined compressive strength (UCS). Least-squares regression was used to fit a predictive equation, modified from the findings of previous researchers, to this data. The equation estimates the UCS of a deep-mixed organic soil specimen using its total water-to-binder ratio and mixture dry unit weight. Soil OM is incorporated into the equation as a threshold binder content, aT, required to improve a soil with a given OM; the aT term is used to calculate an effective total water-to-binder ratio. This thesis reached several important conclusions. The modified equation was successfully fitted to the data, meaning that the UCS of some organic soil-binder mixtures may be predicted in the same manner as that of inorganic soil-binder mixtures. The fitting coefficients from the predictive equations indicated that for the soils and binder tested, specimens of organic soil-binder mixtures have a greater relative gain of UCS immediately after mixing compared to specimens of inorganic soil-binder mixtures. However, the inorganic mixtures generally have a greater relative gain of UCS during the curing period. The influence of curing temperature was found to be similar for organic and inorganic mixtures. For the organic soils and binder tested in this research, aT may be expressed as a linear or power function of OM. For both functions, the value of aT was negligible at values of OM below 45%, which reflects the chemistry of the organic matter in the peat moss. For projects involving deep mixing of organic soils, the predictive equation will be used most effectively by fitting it to the results of bench-scale testing and then checking it against the results of field-scale testing. / Master of Science / Organic soils are formed continuously as matter from deceased organisms – mainly plants – is deposited in wet environs and decomposes. Organic soils are most commonly found in swamps, marshes, and coastal areas. These soils make poor foundation materials due to their low strengths. Deep mixing, or soil mixing, involves introducing a binder like Portland cement or lime into soil and blending the soil and binder together to form columns or blocks. Upon mixing, cementitious reactions occur, and the soil-binder mixture gains strength as it cures. Deep mixing may be performed using either a dry binder, known as dry mixing, or a binder-water slurry, referred to as wet mixing. Deep mixing may be used to treat either inorganic or organic soils to depths of 30 meters or greater. Contractor experience has shown that deep mixing is one of the most effective methods of improving the strength of organic soils. Lab-scale studies (by previous researchers) of wet mixing of inorganic soils have found that the strength of soil-binder mixtures can be expressed as a function of mixture curing time and curing temperature, as well as the quantity of binder used, or binder factor, and the consistency of the binder slurry. No corresponding expression has been generated for wet mixing of organic soils, although many studies on the subject have been performed by previous researchers. The goal of this research was to generate such an expression for one organic soil. The soil used was made of sphagnum peat moss, an organic material commonly found in nature, and an inorganic clay used by previous researchers in studies of deep mixing in inorganic soils. The binder used in this research was a Portland cement. For this research, 43 unique soil-binder mixtures were manufactured. Each mixture involved a unique combination of soil organic matter content, binder factor, and binder slurry consistency. After a soil-binder mixture was made, it was divided, placed into cylindrical molds, and allowed to cure. The temperature of the curing environment of the mixture was monitored. Mixture compressive strength was assessed after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing using two cylindrically molded specimens of the mixture. Data on mixture strength was then evaluated to assess whether it could be expressed as a function of the variables tested. iv This research determined that the strength of at least some organic soils improved with wet mixing can be expressed as a function of soil organic matter content, binder factor, binder slurry consistency, and mixture curing time and curing temperature. The function will likely prove useful to deep mixing contractors, who routinely perform lab-scale deep mixing trials on samples of the soils to be improved in the field. Assuming wet mixing is used, the results of the trials are used to select values of binder factor and binder slurry consistency for the project. The function generated from this research will allow deep mixing contractors to select these values more reliably during the lab-scale phase of their work.

Le Soil-Mixing consiste à traiter le sol avec un liant hydraulique en le mélangeant mécaniquement en place pour améliorer ses propriétés mécaniques. Son coté économique ainsi que son faible impact environnemental ont fait de cette méthode jusque là cantonnée à l'amélioration de sols compressibles ou à forte teneur en matière organique une alternative attrayante aux méthodes traditionnelles de renforcements des sols, de soutènements (temporaires voire définitifs), de fondations et de travaux d'étanchéités. Mais avec cette augmentation de la demande, les exigences nouvelles concernant la méthode et le matériau sont apparues.De nombreuses études permettent d'apporter des éléments de réponses. Cependant, il n'existe pas d'étude paramétrique globale étudiant à la fois l'impact du type de sol et de la quantité d'eau sur la caractérisation du matériau Soil-Mixing et qui permettrait d'améliorer les méthodes de dosage ainsi que les méthodes de dimensionnement des ouvrages en Soil-Mixing.Un mélange sol-ciment est composé majoritairement de sol. Le ciment ne représentera au maximum que 30% du mélange. L'approche adoptée est donc plutôt celle du domaine de la géotechnique que des bétons hydrauliques. Nous avons pris le parti de baser notre travail sur une étude de laboratoire, en réalisant des mélanges dits “de référence”. Trois sables et cinq sols fins ont été traités en faisant varier à chaque fois les quantités de ciment et d'eau, afin d'observer l'influence de la granulométrie, de l'argilosité et de la quantité d'eau présente dans le mélange sur la résistance, la rigidité et la déformation à la rupture du matériau. Par ailleurs, des sols reconstitués à base de sable et de sol fin ont été traités afin d'étudier l'impact des fines et de leur nature sur la résistance du matériau. En parallèle, le suivi de différents chantiers nous a permis d'étudier la mise en œuvre de la méthode, l'homogénéité du matériau réalisé in situ, et de comparer les résultats obtenus avec ceux de l'étude paramétrique. Les retombées de ce travail sont la création d'abaques reliant la résistance au dosage en ciment et au rapport C/E, ainsi qu'un tableau de synthèse de données expérimentales des différentes propriétés mécaniques du matériau Soil-Mixing (en fonction de la nature du sol rencontré), et des formules permettant pour les sols grenus de prédire la résistance à 7 et 28 jours en fonction du pourcentage de fines dans le sol et du dosage en ciment / The Soil-Mixing consists in mixing a hydraulic binder into the soil mechanically in order to improve its mechanical properties. Because of its economical as well as its sustainable advantages, this method so far confined to the improvement of compressible or high organic content soils has become an attractive alternative to traditional methods for soil reinforcement, retaining walls (temporary or final), foundations and cutoff walls. But these new applications imply new requirements on the method as well as on the material. Many studies on the subject provide some answers. However, there is no comprehensive parametric study examining both the impact of soil type and the amount of water on the characterization of the Soil-Mixing material and would improve the testing methods and methods for design of structures in Soil-Mixing.Soil-cement mixtures are predominantly composed of soil. The cement will represent at most 30% of the mixture. That is why we have chosen to follow a geotechnical approach rather than the concrete approach for this project.We followed an experimental program based on a laboratory study, realizing mixes called "reference" mixes. Three sand soil and five fine soils were treated by varying each time the quantities of cement and water to observe the influence of particle size, clay content and the amount of water present in the mixes on the resistance of the material, stiffness and failure strain. In addition, soils made from sand and fine soils were reconstituted and treated to study the impact of fines and their nature on the strength of the material.In parallel, monitoring of various projects has enabled us to study the implementation of the method, the homogeneity of the material produced in situ, and to compare the results with those of the parametric study. The results of this work are the creation of abaci connecting the resistance to the cement content and C/E ratio, and a summary table of experimental data of different mechanical properties of the Soil-Mixing material (depending on the nature of the soil), and formulas for granular soils predicting the strength after 7 and 28 days of curing depending on the percentage of fines in the soil and on cement content

Soil mixing is a procedure that has proven to be effective for loose or soft compressible soils. The method stabilizes the soil in-place using specialized augers, tillers, or paddles that inject grout or dry cementitious powders as part of the mixing process. The Federal Highway Administration design manual for soil mixing helps to estimate the required amount of cementitious binder to produce a target design strength. However, it is biased towards inorganic soils and only mentions caution when confronting organic soils which usually come with a high water table, moisture content and void volume. The Swedish Deep Stabilization Research Centre cited studies with highly organic soils in regards to soil mixing and suggested that organic soils may need to reach a ‘threshold’ of cement content before strength gain can occur. The University of South Florida also conducted a study on highly organic soils and was able to confirm this concept. USF also proposed a threshold selection curve based on the organic content. This thesis extends this concept to the bench scale testing of multiple full scale field studies. This thesis will conclude with the presentation of new threshold curves based on the new data from the added field case studies. Given that there were variable binders and soil types used in the data analyzed, these threshold curves are dependent upon soil type and binder type, thus expanding upon the curve previously suggested.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l'étude du renforcement par «soil-mixing» des plateformes ferroviaires en France. Cette recherche, à dominante expérimentale, s'appuie sur une approche du type modélisation physique. Deux cas d'études ont été abordés, la dégradation du frottement à l'interface sol-colonne et le comportement mécanique du matériau « soil-mix » à jeune âge sous l'effet de chargements cycliques. En ce qui concerne l'étude du comportement de l'interface entre la colonne en «soil-mix» et le sol environnant, on a développé un essai de chargement d'un tronçon modèle de colonne instrumenté de capteurs de forces, dans un massif de limon reconstitué. L'objectif principal a été d'évaluer le frottement latéral unitaire le long de ce tronçon de « soil-mix », sous chargements monotones et cycliques. On s'est intéressé, plus particulièrement, à l'évolution du frottement latéral sous chargement cyclique à déplacement contrôlé à grand nombre de cycles (100 000 cycles). Le programme d'essais a permis de mettre en évidence l'influence des paramètres principaux du problème comme l'amplitude du déplacement cyclique, la contrainte verticale appliquée au massif, le sens de chargement. Les résultats obtenus montrent une bonne cohérence avec les résultats de la littérature dans le cas de l'interface entre un pieu métallique et un massif de sable. Dans un second temps, on s'est intéressé à l'effet des chargements cycliques sur le comportement du matériau «soi-mix» pendant les premières heures de prise après la réalisation des colonnes. Ce cas d'étude s'inscrit dans le contexte ferroviaire pour lequel une des contraintes principales est d'assurer la continuité du trafic ferroviaire. Des essais sur un modèle physique simplifié ont permis d'étudier le comportement mécanique du matériau «soil-mix» à 2h, 4h, 6h, 8h, 12h et 24 h après la mise en place du soil mix et après avoir subi un chargement cyclique de 2000 cycles. On a pu montrer que le chargement cyclique ne provoque pas de dégradation du matériau «soil-mix». Au contraire, on observe un accroissement de la résistance à la compression simple d'autant plus fort que le matériau est chargé rapidement après la mise en place du soil mix / The present work deals with the behaviour of soil-mix columns used to reinforce railway platforms in France. This research, mainly experimental, is based on a physical modelling approach. Two case studies have been conducted, the degradation of the local friction mobilized at the interface soil-column and the mechanical behaviour of the material “soil-mix” at young age under cyclic loading. Concerning the degradation of the local friction mobilized at the interface soil-column, an experimental program on a physical model has been carried out. A model of a column slice instrumented with load sensors within a mass of reconstituted silt has been developped. The main objective was to evaluate the local skin friction mobilized along the soil-mix column under monotonic and cyclic loading. The main point of interest was the evolution of skin friction under large number of cycles (100 000 cycles). The experimental program highlighted the influence of key parameters such as the cyclic displacement amplitude, the vertical stress applied to the soil sample, the loading direction. The results obtained show a good consistency with the results of the literature on steel piles in sand. In a second step, we studied the effect of cyclic loading on the behaviour of the material “soil-mix” during the first hours after the realization of the columns. This case is directly related to the railway context in which the constraint of traffic continuity is one strong request of SNCF. Tests on a simplified physical model have been carried out in order to study the mechanical behaviour of the material "soil mix" at 2h, 4h, 6h, 8h, 12h and 24 h after realization of the column and after 2000 loading cycles. It has been shown that the cyclic loading does not cause degradation of the "soil-mix" material. On the contrary, there is an increase of the unconfined compression strength, the higher as the column is loaded rapidly after its realization

Tese de mestrado integrado. Engenharia Civil (Especialização em Geotecnia). Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 2010

Le Soil-Mixing consiste à traiter le sol avec un liant hydraulique en le mélangeant mécaniquement en place pour améliorer ses propriétés mécaniques. Son coté économique ainsi que son faible impact environnemental ont fait de cette méthode jusque là cantonnée à l'amélioration de sols compressibles ou à forte teneur en matière organique une alternative attrayante aux méthodes traditionnelles de renforcements des sols, de soutènements (temporaires voire définitifs), de fondations et de travaux d'étanchéités. Mais avec cette augmentation de la demande, les exigences nouvelles concernant la méthode et le matériau sont apparues.De nombreuses études permettent d'apporter des éléments de réponses. Cependant, il n'existe pas d'étude paramétrique globale étudiant à la fois l'impact du type de sol et de la quantité d'eau sur la caractérisation du matériau Soil-Mixing et qui permettrait d'améliorer les méthodes de dosage ainsi que les méthodes de dimensionnement des ouvrages en Soil-Mixing.Un mélange sol-ciment est composé majoritairement de sol. Le ciment ne représentera au maximum que 30% du mélange. L'approche adoptée est donc plutôt celle du domaine de la géotechnique que des bétons hydrauliques. Nous avons pris le parti de baser notre travail sur une étude de laboratoire, en réalisant des mélanges dits "de référence". Trois sables et cinq sols fins ont été traités en faisant varier à chaque fois les quantités de ciment et d'eau, afin d'observer l'influence de la granulométrie, de l'argilosité et de la quantité d'eau présente dans le mélange sur la résistance, la rigidité et la déformation à la rupture du matériau. Par ailleurs, des sols reconstitués à base de sable et de sol fin ont été traités afin d'étudier l'impact des fines et de leur nature sur la résistance du matériau. En parallèle, le suivi de différents chantiers nous a permis d'étudier la mise en œuvre de la méthode, l'homogénéité du matériau réalisé in situ, et de comparer les résultats obtenus avec ceux de l'étude paramétrique. Les retombées de ce travail sont la création d'abaques reliant la résistance au dosage en ciment et au rapport C/E, ainsi qu'un tableau de synthèse de données expérimentales des différentes propriétés mécaniques du matériau Soil-Mixing (en fonction de la nature du sol rencontré), et des formules permettant pour les sols grenus de prédire la résistance à 7 et 28 jours en fonction du pourcentage de fines dans le sol et du dosage en ciment