The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) was developed originally in Holland in the 1930’s as a device which provides a small scale model of a pile foundation. Early versions were simple cone points for which the only measurement was the thrust required to push the point through the ground. Over the past 20 years, the cone was standardized to a tip area of 10 cm², and an electrical version was produced, which allows for continuous measurement of the cone tip resistance and sleeve friction along with a computer-based data acquisition system. The electrical cone represents a significant step forward for the CPT, since it provides a continuous profile of information that can be used to identify soil type and define important engineering parameters. More recently, the CPT has shown considerable potential for calculation of settlements of footings on sand, determination of pile capacity, assessment of ground pressures, and evaluation of liquefaction potential for cohesionless soils. Along with the widening application of the CPT, new varieties of cone penetrometers have appeared, with different sizes than the standard. Smaller cones are used for instances where relatively small depths of soil need to be penetrated, and larger cones have been developed for penetrating dense and gravelly soils. With the introduction of the new cones, there has been a tendency to assume that the methods for reducing CPT data for the standard sized cone can be extrapolated to the other sizes of cones. That is, it is assumed that there are no scale effects in cones of different sizes. While this may be true, to date, little direct evidence has been produced to support this view, and the issue is an important one from two points of view: 1. The present data analysis technology is based on that primarily from testing with a standard cone. lt is important to know if any changes are needed in this approach, or if the existing methods can be used with confidence for any size cone. 2. If it can be shown that no scale factor exists, then this will allow the use of new, smaller cones in experimentation in modem calibration chambers with the knowledge that the test results are applicable for the cones that a.re more widely used in practice. The smaller cones offer several advantages in this type of work in that they facilitate the research considerably by reducing the effort involved in sample preparation, and they are less likely to produce results influenced by boundary conditions in the chamber. One of the major objectives of this research is to develop an insight into the issue of the scale factor caused by the use of different sizes of cones. This is accomplished through an experimental program conducted in a new large scale calibration chamber recently constructed at Virginia Tech. Many of the latest developments in cone penetration testing have been forthcoming from testing done in calibration chambers where a soil mass can be placed to a controlled density under known stress conditions. To conduct the experimentation of this work, it was necessary to design, fabricate, and bring to an operational stage a calibration chamber. The Virginia Tech chamber is one of the largest in the world. A significant portion of the effort involved in this thesis research was devoted to this task. In particular, attention was devoted to the development of a system for placement of a homogeneous soil mass in the chamber, and the implementation of a microcomputer-based data acquisition unit to record and process the test results. The scale effects investigation was performed using three different sizes of cone penetrometers in a test program conducted in the calibration chamber. Of the three cones, one is smaller than the standard with a tip area of 4.23 cm², one was a standard cone with a tip area of 10 cm², and one was larger than the standard cone with a tip area of 15 cm². A total of 47 tests were carried in the chamber using two different levels of confining stress and two different sand densities. The test results show that while a scale factor might exist, the degree of its influence on interpreted soil parameters for a practical problem does not appear significant. / Ph. D. / incomplete_metadata

As testing stiff soils in the laboratory often leads to information which is not consistent with field performance, research was undertaken to determine in situ the soil properties. Among the devices which generated interest is the self-boring pressuremeter (SBPM). In this research, two stiff soils of the Commonwealth of Virginia were tested: A residual soil found in Blacksburg and a very stiff, non-fissured, and sensitive clay, of marine origin, known as the Miocene clay of the downtown Richmond area. Testing the residual soil of Blacksburg with the SBPM led to the following new operational approaches: (1) a systematic use of a steel-sheath known as "Chinese lantern" to protect the membrane of the probe, (2) the development of a loading frame providing adequate reaction when self-boring in stiff soils, (3) the development of a new calibration unit for the SBPM which allows to calibrate the probe under conditions more like those encountered in stiff soils and, (4) the development of a high capacity computerized data acquisition system. Testing the residual soil also allowed to establish a sound database for this soil. In the Miocene clay, the laboratory test results indicate that conventional sampling technique which consists in pushing Shelby tubes disturbs significantly the soil and leads to scattered test results. In contrast, tests performed on samples taken from high-quality block samples indicate consistent behavior patterns. SBPM test results in the Miocene clay indicate that the clay exhibits high lateral stresses. They also indicate the existence of an anisotropic state of lateral stress which can be explained from the regional topography. The soil parameters interpreted from the SBPM test results in the Miocene clay compare well with the soil parameters determined in the laboratory on the block samples. / Ph. D. / incomplete_metadata

Offshore developments for hydrocarbon resources have now progressed to water depths approaching 2500 m. Due to the difficulties and high cost in recovering high quality samples from deepwater site, there is increasing reliance on in situ tests such as piezocone and full-flow (i.e. T-bar and ball) penetration tests for determining the geotechnical design parameters. This research was undertaken in collaboration with the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), as part of a joint industry project, to improve the reliability of in situ tests in determining design parameters and to improve offshore site investigation practice in deepwater soft sediments. In this research, a worldwide high quality database was assembled and used to correlate intact and remoulded shear strengths (measured from laboratory and vane shear tests) with penetration resistances measured by piezocone, T-bar and ball penetrometers. The overall statistics showed similar and low levels of variability of resistance factors for intact shear strength (N-factors) for all three types of penetrometer. In the correlation between the remoulded penetration resistance and remoulded shear strength, the resistance factors for remoulded shear strength (Nrem-factors) were found higher than the N-factors. As a result, the resistance sensitivity is less than the strength sensitivity. The correlations between the derived N-factors and specific soil characteristics indicated that the piezocone N-factors are more influenced by rigidity index than those for the T-bar and ball penetrometers. The effect of strength anisotropy is only apparent in respect of N-factors for the T-bar and ball penetrometers correlated to shear strengths measured in triaxial compression. On the other hand, the Nrem-factors showed slight tendency to increase with increasing strength sensitivity but were insensitive to soil index properties. These findings suggest that the full-flow penetrometers may be used to estimate remoulded shear strength and are potentially prove more reliable than the piezocone in estimating average or vane shear strength for intact soil but the reverse is probably true for the estimation of triaxial compression strength.

Due to the similarity between the geometry and full displacement installation method of a cone penetrometer and displacement pile, the axial capacity of displacement piles is often assessed using data from a cone penetration test (CPT). As there are many more factors influencing pile axial capacity than affecting CPT cone resistance, there are a wide range of CPT-based empirical design methods in use. These methods have various levels of predictive success, which usually depends upon the soil conditions, pile geometry, pile installation method, and time between installations and loading. An improved understanding of the basis and reliability of respective design methods is essential to improve the quality of predictions in the absence of site specific load test data. This thesis explores the influence of soil state and drainage conditions on piezocone penetration test (CPTU) tip resistance (qc) and penetration pore pressures (u2). For cone penetration testing identified as 'drained', factors influencing the correlation between cone tip resistance and displacement pile shaft friction in sand are investigated through (i) a review of previous research and the performance of existing design methods; (ii) centrifuge studies of piles of differing widths with measurements of local lateral stress; (iii) field tension tests at different times between installation and loading for uninstrumented driven piles with different diameters and end conditions; and (iv) field tension tests at different times between installation and loading on closed ended strain gauged jacked segmented model piles with different installation sequences. CPTU qc and u2 are primarily controlled by soil state and drainage conditions, with effective stress strength parameters and soil stiffness also influencing the measurements. The primary mechanisms identified to control the correlation between cone tip resistance and shaft friction on displacement piles are identified as; (i) the initial increase in radial stress due to soil displaced during installation of a pile; (ii) different levels of soil displacement induced by open, closed, and partially plugged piles; (iii) reduction in radial stress behind the pile tip; (iv) additional reduction in radial stress with continued pile penetration (friction fatigue); (v) changes in radial stress during loading; (vi) constant volume interface friction angle between soil and steel; and (vii) changes in the effects of the above mentioned mechanisms with time between installation and loading. The relative effect of each of these factors is investigated in this thesis.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the M-Tech Degree in Civil Engineering” Cape Town 16 MAY 2011 / Dwellings in impoverished and upper class urban areas of the Western Cape have undergone serious structural failure due to problematic underlying sand deposits, generally known as Cape Flats windblown found in areas such as Delft, Blue Downs and the Atlantic Beach Golf Estate. The problem is compounded further when moisture penetrates below the footings and reaches saturation in the winter months. When poorly graded sand with a high fines content is coupled with vibration (through earth tremors), liquefaction may occur and without proper precautions, this can lead to inadequate foundation design, more than expected settlement and eventual structural failure. Some sand deposits are highly contaminated with organic debris, leading to compressible and collapsible conditions. Little knowledge is locally available of liquefiable conditions in windblown dune sand and what long-term settlement can be expected. The Western Cape is not known as an area exposed to serious seismic activity, but an updated (and more locally applicable set of data) is needed to eliminate possible erroneous foundation design. Samples have been extracted from typical sandy sites in the Western Cape where windblown dune sand is evident. Laboratory tests have been carried out on representative samples for closer examination and have been placed inside a purpose built calibration chamber that facilitates easy densification and probe testing. A DMT (flat blade dilatometer) was used to hydraulically penetrate the chamber sand sample to varying depths (up to 800 mm). The device can measure (with reduction formula) horizontal stress, angle of friction, bearing capacity and settlement. An accelerometer was attached to the chamber wall and vibration measured with the sand in varying states of moisture. The DMT is an unexplored in-situ soil testing device in South Africa and so far the outcome indicates favourably compared to other devices such as the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP. The DMT has the ability to measure the in-situ stiffness, strength and stress history parameters of soil for better site characterisation. Settlement within the chamber is easily measured. The DMT has, for example, indicated that sand from the Philippi area are a problematic founding soil and should be treated with special care at shallow founding levels. The horizontal stress index is low and according to the available knowledge on soil stress history, these sand, coupled with low densities, can liquefy easily and result in structural damage. The West Coast dune sand, being coarser and easily consolidated, poses less of a problem under liquefiable conditions. A suitable terrain device for easy on-site manoeuvrability is required to assist the DMT in further testing.

Under loading conditions found in many geotechnical structures, it is common to observe failure in zones of high localized strain called shear bands. Existing models predict these localizations, but provide little insight into the micromechanics within the shear bands. This research captures the variation in microstructure inside and outside of shear bands that were formed in laboratory plane strain and two-dimensional discrete element method (DEM) biaxial compression experiments. Plane strain compression tests were conducted on dry specimens of Ottawa 20-30 sand to calibrate the device, assess global response repeatability, and develop a procedure to quantitatively define the onset of localization. A new methodology was employed to quantify and correct for the additional stresses imparted by the confining membrane in the vicinity of the shear band. Unsheared and sheared specimens of varying dilatancy were solidified using a two-stage resin impregnation procedure. DEM tests were performed using an innovative servo-controlled flexible lateral confinement algorithm to provide additional insights into laboratory results. The solidified specimens were sectioned and the resulting surfaces prepared for microstructure observation using bright field microscopy and morphological analysis. Local void ratio distributions and their statistical properties were determined and compared. Microstructural parameters for subregions in a grid pattern and along predefined inclined zones were also calculated. Virtual surfaces parallel to the shear band were identified and their roughnesses assessed. Similar calculations were performed on the DEM simulations at varying strain levels to characterize the evolution of microstructure with increasing strain. The various observations showed that the mean, standard deviation, and entropy of the local void ratio distributions all increased with increasing strain levels, particularly within regions of high local strains. These results indicate that disorder increases within a shear band and that the soil within the shear band does not adhere to the classical concept of critical state, but reaches a terminal void ratio that is largely a function of initial void ratio. Furthermore, there appears to be a transition zone between the far field and the fully formed shear block, as opposed to an abrupt delineation as traditionally inferred.

Particulate materials are ubiquitous in the natural environment and have served throughout human history as one of the basic materials for developing civilizations. In terms of human activity, the handling of particulate materials consumes approximately 10% of all the energy produced on earth. Advances in the study and understanding of particulate materials can thus be expected to have a major impact on society. Geotechnical engineers have a long history of studying particulate materials since the fundamental building blocks of the profession include sands, silts, clays, gravels and ores, all of which are in one form or another particulates. The interface between particulates and other engineered materials is very important in determining the overall behavior of many geotechnical systems. Laboratory experimental studies into interface shear behavior has until now, been largely confined to systems involving uniformly graded sands comprised of a single particle size. This study addresses these potential shortcomings by investigating the behavior of binary particle mixtures in contact with surfaces. The binary nature of the mixtures gives rise to a changing fabric state which in turn can affect the shear strength of the mixture. Accordingly, packing limit states and the shear strength of binary mixtures were investigated across a range of mixtures, varying in particle size ratio and the proportion of fine particles to provide a reference. Binary mixtures in contact with smooth surfaces were investigated from both a global shear response and a contact mechanics perspective. A model was developed that allowed for the prediction of an interface friction coefficient based on fundamental material properties, particle and mixture parameters. Surface roughness changes as a result of shearing were also examined. The interface shear behavior with rough interfaces was examined in the context of the relative roughness between particles and surface features. The interpretation of traditional measures of relative roughness suffer from the need for a definitive average particle size, which is ambiguous in the case of non-uniform mixtures. Measures of an applicable average particle size for binary mixtures were evaluated.

No description available.

The physical and chemical properties of soils can greatly influence the vegetation patterns in a landscape. This is especially so through the effect that particular characteristics of soils have on the water balance and nutrient cycling in savanna ecosystems. Areas in the savanna environment found in Hluhluwe iMfolozi Park have experienced a number of changes in the vegetation patterns observed. This study, therefore, looks at the effect that soil characteristics may have on the vegetation growth in this area and on the changes that have taken place over time. Fixed-point photographs, taken every four years, were used to choose fourteen sites in the Park, which showed either a ‘change’ or ‘no-change’ in vegetation from 1974 to 1997. The sites consisted of four which had ‘no-change’ in vegetation, two sites with a slight increase (5- 20%) in tree density, three sites with a greater increase in tree density (>20%), two sites with a slight decrease in tree density (5-20%), and three sites with a greater decrease in tree density (>20%). Transects were then carried out at each site, in which the soil was classified to the form and family level. Each horizon was then sampled and the field texture, structure, Munsell colour and depth of each horizon and profile recorded. The data recorded in the field were statistically analysed through a principal component analysis (PCA). The type of horizon, horizon boundary, structure type, colour group and depth for the top and subsoil were included in the models and were analysed with the number given to each site for each of the three sections of the Park, namely Hluhluwe, the Corridor and iMfolozi. The most prominent textures at all sites were sandy loam, loam, clay loam and silt loam for both the top and subsoil for all site categories. The texture classes were also compared across the Hluhluwe, Corridor and iMfolozi sections. The dominant textures in the Hluhluwe and Corridor sections are loam, clay loam and silt loam for both top and subsoils. Sites sampled in the iMfolozi section appear to have textures mainly associated with the clay loam and sandy loam classes. The structure classes of the soil including sub-angular blocky, granular and crumb which are associated with a moderate structure appear to be the most dominant type in all categories for the topsoil; single-grain and sub-angular blocky classes the main types for the subsoil. Generally the colour of the soil at all the sites sampled was yellower than 2.5YR and the values and chromas mostly fell within the range of 3-5 and 2-6, respectively. This is also shown in the PCA results obtained, which associate particular soil characteristics with the various sites sampled for the different vegetation change categories investigated. The samples collected were also analysed in the laboratory after being air-dried. The laboratory analysis included measurements of pH, exchangeable acidity, organic carbon, extractable phosphorus, particle size distribution and cation exchange capacity (CEC). The data recorded in the laboratory were also analysed by PCA. This was used to determine which soil properties are associated with the particular sites investigated. The pH of the soil, in all areas, fell within a wide range. The pH is influenced by the rainfall in the area and thus sites sampled in the Hluhluwe section are more acidic than those sampled in the Corridor and iMfolozi sections. The topsoils had a higher pH for all the samples and were in the range between 5 and 7. The exchangeable acidity measurements were low, although they were higher in the subsoil as opposed to the topsoil. The nutrient contents did not appear to vary greatly between the different sites in the Park. Generally extractable phosphorus, CEC and organic carbon were low across the Park. The particle size analysis showed that the clay percentage increases between the top and subsoil for all the sites sampled. The silt and various fractions of sand percentages vary across all sites and are lower than the clay percentage at all sites except the A horizon of the ‘slight increase’ sites. The ‘no-change’, and ‘increase’ sites have a higher percentage of clay as compared to the silt and sand fraction for both the A and B horizon. The ‘slight increase’ sites have a higher percentage of sand in the A and B horizon, the ‘slight decrease’ sites have a more equal percentage between the sand, silt and clay fractions in the A horizon and a greater percentage of clay in the B horizon. The ‘decrease’ sites have a greater percentage of clay and silt in the A and B horizon. While certain soil properties have a definite effect on the plant growth, no relationship between specific soil properties and vegetation changes was shown. However, it is likely that the soil structure and texture affect the vegetation patterns, through their influences on the water and nutrient holding capacity. With an increase in the clay percentage and more strongly structured soils, plants can access more water and nutrients and this will increase the tree density in an area. However, the recent changes in the vegetation patterns observed in the Park appear to be more associated with other environmental factors. The soil properties analysed would have generally been more constant at the sites sampled, particularly over the relatively short period of time in this study. Therefore, the changes which were recorded in the fixed-point photographs would have been enhanced by other factors experienced in the Park, including fire and the effect that grazers and browsers have on the vegetation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.