Thesis (M.P.H.)--University of Washington, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 44-47). Also available online (PDF file) by a subscription to the set or by purchasing the individual file.

Thesis (M.P.H.)--University of Washington, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 44-47).

Doctor Legum - LLD / Children have been committing crimes during times of war and other armed conflicts since time immemorial. Yet, it is only over the last few decades that cognisance is being taken of child soldiers as a type of juvenile. The unfortunate sight of a child holding a gun has become a familiar picture throughout armed conflicts, especially in Africa. Both boys and girls are used as child soldiers and they can be as young as 5 years old. They are mainly regarded as victims of crimes under international law and are therefore usually rehabilitated once they have been disarmed and demobilised. Notwithstanding their need for rehabilitation, it is a fact that child soldiers commit some of the most egregious crimes under international law. They receive military-style training and are presumably not afraid of killing and carrying out orders. Yet it is recognised that generally they do not have the same level of maturity as adults. The reality of child soldiers who join armed forces therefore presents complex legal questions in the face of contemporary international criminal law principles which, on the one hand, afford protection to all children, and on the other, unequivocally call for the prosecution and punishment of those who are individually responsible for committing crimes under international law. Consequently, various safeguards need to be upheld to ensure that the best interests of the child are maintained once a child soldier is held criminally responsible. This thesis analyses the extent to which child soldiers can be prosecuted under domestic and international law, as well as the implementation of alternative measures to prosecution. The thesis proposes that a case-by-case approach should be considered when child soldiers are prosecuted for crimes under international law, thereby investigating and analysing the often distinctive circumstances related to their crimes. / German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)

This research explores the perceptions and experiences of female former child soldiers in regard to their reintegration within the community of Gulu District, northern Uganda. In many societies women are generally excluded due to prevailing patriarchal hegemonies, with northern Uganda being no exception. Moreover, former child soldiers are commonly marginalized and discriminated against because members of communities commonly believe that they should be punished for the perceived atrocities that they allegedly committed during times of conflict, rather than be reintegrated into society. In this regard female former child soldiers can be identified as a particularly vulnerable and marginalized group. Therefore, it can be suggested that although the distinction between traditional gender roles has been eroded during times of armed conflict, there is still widespread evidence that women are largely overlooked and disregarded in the process of peace building. In order to explore the perceptions and experiences of former female child soldiers, a qualitative case study method was utilized based on in-depth face to face interviews with women from Gulu District, northern Uganda. The findings of this study indicate that, even though these women went through considerable hardships, all of them displayed a strong sense of resilience. Many of them had taken on the role as active change agents in their own lives and provided an array of suggestions on how their situation could be improved. The major themes constructed from the study include: challenges facing returnees; facilitating factors for returnees and suggestions on improved reintegration. Based on these findings a number of recommendations emerged. The recommendations are presented in order to assist organizations and other stakeholders involved in reintegration of child soldiers in northern Uganda and elsewhere in the world. Apart from providing information to the existing body of research, future areas of proposed research are also outlined.

The provision of basic needs such as food, shelter, security, identity and recognition is central in the rebuilding and reconstruction of the war-torn areas of Africa and indeed around the world. The war in northern Uganda, in particular, has taken its toll on the people of that area for more than 20 years and in the process, has witnessed the children facing some of the worst effects of armed conflicts known to man. This study investigated the role played by the Gulu Support the Children Organisation (GUSCO) in the reintegration of former child soldiers in Northern Uganda. GUSCO is however in favour of the term Formerly Abducted Children (FAC) as this is less prone to acts of stigmatisation against those who have faced some of the most horrific abuses known to human kind. It focused on the process of reintegration of the FAC in relation to the human needs theory which has been used as a basis for conflict resolution practices. The researcher conducted extensive face-to-face interviews with the employees of GUSCO who work in various fields as social workers, counsellors, health workers and teachers, who tend to the needs of the FAC daily. The researcher was also able to carryout observations of the activities that take place at the GUSCO reception centre where the children are rehabilitated. The organisation’s official documents were also consulted in order to carryout this triangular study and collect data. The major themes constructed from the study include: the empowerment and development of the FAC through education and skills training; health care provision to meet both physical and psychological needs; community empowerment and development and finally peacebuilding and reconciliation which involves the participation of whole communities to meet their needs and rebuild the war-torn northern Uganda. The researcher highlights some challenges that GUSCO faces in trying to reintegrate the former combatants albeit children into a routine of a community that struggles to recover from a war that continues to persist after twenty years. Several recommendations are made for GUSCO and civil societies who have given themselves the mandate to work towards salvaging the future generations of Uganda and Africa as a whole.

The following research study was an ethnographic case study of an intergenerational life review/guided autobiography group consisting of four World War II veterans, five peacekeepers and one member who was a World War II veteran, a Korean veteran and a peacekeeper. The group members ranged in age from 30 to 82. All ten group members participated in a six week life review program (LRP) followed by an individual audio-taped interview. This interview was followed up by a validation interview. The purpose of this research was twofold. There were the research goals coupled with the goals, and intended benefits to, the participants. These goals and benefits often overlapped. The research goal was to answer four questions posed at the beginning of the study. They were: 1) What are the specific competencies, skills and knowledge needed for successful re-entry into civilian life? 2) Can these skills, competencies, and knowledge be successfully passed on in an intergenerational LRP involving both World War II veterans and peacekeepers? 3) Will the intergenerational passing on and receiving of these competencies, skills and knowledge lead to increased feelings of efficacy on the part of both World War II veterans and peacekeepers? 4) What changed for the individual during the course of the program and do they view their lives differently after the guided autobiography/life review experience? The goals, or intended benefits, to the participants were not formulated before the study but instead the method of grounded theory was employed. Grounded theory can be described as "a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data, systematically gathered and analyzed" (Strauss & Corbin, 1994, p. 278). Evidence emerged for two of Birren and Deutchman's (1991) seven outcomes. Those two outcomes were: 1) recognition of past adaptive strategies and application to current needs and problems and 2) development of friendships with other group members. Ten new outcomes were also identified. They were: 1) normalization of one's reactions to trauma or to events (e.g. re-entry); 2) the receipt of specific advice, ideas, or assistance; 3) engendering of hope; 4) relief or emotional release in telling one's story; 5) feeling heard/being listened to; 6) relating/commonality with others; 7) new awareness or heightened awareness of one's contributions and/or abilities; 8) new awareness or heightened awareness of others' contributions and/or abilities; 9) positive feelings obtained from others' responses to one's story; and 10) a new appreciation of one's life through comparison with other group members' lives. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

The objective of this research is to explore the influence of military service on political behaviors and attitudes. Existing studies of the military have long recognized the existence of a predominantly conservative political ideology with a resulting propensity for strong Republican Party support within the military community, but have failed to explain the likely causal mechanism for this. Drawing on multiple sources of data from the 2008 Presidential election cycle, I utilized a descriptive analysis of campaign contribution data and bivariate and multivariate analyses of data from the 2008 Military Times Survey and the 2008 American National Election Survey. Much of the data also permitted me to analyze the effect of an individual's service branch on their attitudes as well. I examined the behavior and attitudes of the military across several dimensions, including candidate support and positions on policies of particular relevance to the military, including the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. This analysis found that people who serve in the military tend to be conservative but in many ways their political attitudes are reflective of those of the general population. An individual's race, ethnicity and gender appear to have more influence than military factors, with the exception of service in the Marine Corps, on ideology, partisan identification and policy preferences.

No description available.

Thesis (D. Tech.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2007 / The focus of this study is on a Model of Co-operative Education on Peace Support Operations (PSO) in Africa. PSO are multi-functional operations involving military forces and diplomatic humanitarian agencies. They are designed to achieve humanitarian goals or a long-term political settlement, and are conducted impartially in support of a UN mandate. These include peacekeeping (PK), peace enforcement (PE), conflict prevention, peacemaking, peace building, and humanitarian operations. Since the advent of democracy in 1994, domestic and international expectations have steadily grown regarding a new South African role as a responsible and respected member of the international community. These expectations have included a hope that South Africa will play a leading role in a variety of international, regional and sub-regional forums, and that the country will become an active participant in attempts to resolve various regional and international conflicts. Peacekeeping is becoming more and more important as South Africa plays a vital role in African missions, mandates, deployment and restructuring. The core of peacekeeping operations in Africa is no longer about the deployment of armed forces, but the focus is shifting towards a more integrated approach including reconstruction, development, stability, civilian involvement and humanitarian aspects. While skills required for peace operations overlap with those required for war, there is increasing recognition that additional peace operations training is needed to successfully conduct these missions. The demand, advancement and application of peacekeeping evolve worldwide, especially in Africa, where enormous funding is being poured into local research and development, testing and training. The market for Education, Training and Development (ETD) in the field of PSO is growing, as South Africa is becoming increasingly involved in peacekeeping missions on the African continent. At present, there is no Co-operative Education programme on generic PSO on the operational/strategic level presented by any of the major universities in South Africa in order to enhance other PSO training. The objectives of this research project are in phase one: • To determine the need for and feasibility of a Co-operative Education Program on PSO. • To write a instructional design (ISD) report for a Co-operative Education Model on PSO and, • To draft possible curriculum content. • The second phase of the project could involve the development of learning material, and the evaluation of the proposed Co-operative Education Model on PSO by running a pilot programme. The principal product (output) of this research will consist out of an ISD report on a Model for Co-operative Education on PSO in Africa, presented by means of Correspondence Instruction with contact sessions. The key factors in production of the learning program include geo-political and security studies in order to create an understanding of the African battle space, PSO as presented by UNITAR POCI, the assessment of international practice with regards to PSO in order to relate the information to operations in Africa, PSO on the African continent, and Civil-Military Cooperation.

Thesis (DPhil (Psychology))—University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The spread of HIV/AIDS in South Africa has continued in spite of initiatives by government and numerous concerned community-based and non-governmental organisations to contain the pandemic. Hegemonic masculinity and traditional male sexual practices associated with such identities have only recently been identified as a key area of challenge in the HIV/AIDS pandemic and more broadly in addressing issues of gender inequality. Practices such as non-negotiation in heterosexual relationships as well as other manifestations of gender inequality remain rife. Not surprisingly, this has led to a proliferation of research on men and boys in South Africa. Yet, while critical men’s studies foreground the centrality of context in the construction of masculinities, the role of particular institutions long associated with the construction of hegemonic masculinity has not been well documented in the light of the HIV/AIDS challenge. Given that HIV infection ratios are higher among soldiers than civilians, and the masculinist culture that prevails in military settings, it is clear that soldiers are particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. This study seeks to understand how men in the military draw on notions of masculinity and heterosexuality in constructing their identity and heterosexual practices. I conducted in-depth interviews with a diverse group of 14 male soldiers aged 23 to 33. All participants were officers pursuing a career in the military who were enrolled in a tertiary institution. The interviews were audio-taped and then transcribed. All the interviews were analysed using discourse analysis, with interpretation being informed by a social constructionist theoretical framework in order to address the intersecting issues of gender, sexuality and masculinity. The discourse analysis carried out on the transcripts highlights the centrality of dominant constructions of (hetero)sexual masculinity. Key here is the ‘male sexual drive discourse’ which has been identified elsewhere in South Africa and internationally, usually coupled with traditional expectations of women’s sexuality as submissive and responsive to that of men. There is, furthermore, a prevailing notion of ‘double standards’ which reward men for risky sexual practices while condemning women for the same practices and for resisting their traditional feminine and sexual roles. The study also found that the military as a macho/masculinist institution plays a key role in exaggerating traditional identities and sexual practices for men, in particular notions of masculinity as equated with physical strength and prowess and traditional constructs of male sexuality as urgent and aggressive. These are exacerbated by the military context in which soldiers, due to the nature of their task, have socio-economic and political power over (female) members of local communities. Long periods of isolation from partners during deployment and courses could also facilitate unsafe sexual practices. The study further points to the salience of social identities such as race and class intersecting with gender in the subjective representations of masculinity and sexuality, with neither of these representations manifested as fixed or unitary. The study foregrounds how male sexual risk-taking facilitates the reproduction of hegemonic discourses on male and female sexuality that continue to repress women’s rights to sexual desire and pleasure, while legitimating hegemonic male sexual practices. The study concludes that tackling HIV in the military demands critical examination of multiple constructions of masculinity: those common to broader groups of men and those peculiar to the context of the military. It is thus argued that the development of effective intervention programmes on the one hand requires an unpacking of broader discourses on masculinity and male sexuality and on the other a specific targeting within the context of military imperatives and conditions.