A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2015. / The word apartheid refers to the racist belief that certain people are less human than others. In South Africa, the system technically began with the 1913 Land Act which set aside eighty-seven per cent (87%) of the most fertile land for white South Africans, leaving behind only thirteen per cent (13%) to be shared by the majority black Africans. This unequivocally generated a socio-political crisis in the country. Despite a plethora of literature on apartheid as such, there seems to have been some paucity of empirical studies on apartheid’s compulsion, its demise and the rise of a new political era during the period from 1948 to 1994. Puzzlement and curiosity within the public mind in South Africa and the world, about the gross violation of civil liberties perpetrated by the apartheid regime, prompted a scientific study of this nature. This study does not argue that the year 1948 marked the beginning of compulsive policies in South Africa On the contrary; there were various forms of compulsions that existed in South Africa prior to the period in question. The year 1948, however, serves as the point of departure for the study. The year 1948 ushered in the adoption and implementation of apartheid’s -social engineering by the ruling National Party- as an official State ideology. Between 1948 and 1988, a series of compulsive racial laws, which violated fundamental civil liberties, were passed by the South African parliament. Compulsive structures and strategies were devised and refined by the apartheid regime on the assumption of power in 1948 to safeguard and perpetuate the power in the face of a hostile and non-compliant majority. This led to a gradual, peaceful protest which later metamorphosed into various forms of political struggle. It was these forms of struggle that ensured the demise of apartheid and witnessed the advent of a new political dispensation in South Africa. From 1988 various political prisoners embarked on a hunger strike as a form of resistance to demonstrate their anger and rejection of apartheid compulsion. The hunger strike attracted the attention of the international community. This eventually led to more criticism and put pressure on the apartheid regime. As such, diplomatic and economic embargoes were placed on South Africa which greatly undermined its political and economic interests. What followed was mass disobedience and violent protests from different racial groups against the apartheid regime, thereby leading to the deaths of thousands of people, particularly those who vehemently opposed the compulsive racial laws. The victims that survived were either injured, imprisoned or forced to go into exile. Thus, the period between 1988 and 1990 was marked by intense resistance. In addition, the period in question destabilised the very foundation of 'apartheism' as an ideology in South Africa. It also signalled the demise of the compulsive segregationist policies in the country. The years between 1990 and 1994 played a vital role in the history and historiography of South Africa. They witnessed the release of the long-awaited political prisoner, Nelson Mandela, who championed the remaining campaigns against the compulsive apartheid tendencies. He was officially and unconditionally released from prison after spending about 10,000 days behind bars. The period in question was characterised by various apartheid strategies aimed at destabilising the liberation movement. The regime introduced improved survival strategies in arming the police and other security agents with more power to crush all forms of insurrection against it. In the space of four years, thousands of people lost their lives in regime-sponsored and politically related violence. South Africa was thrown into a state of anarchy characterised by, among other things, intense rivalry among political formations. The year 1994, however, witnessed a departure from apartheid to democracy. It paved the way for the emergence of Nelson Mandela as the first democratically elected president of South Africa. The period between 1994 and 1996 played a vital role towards consolidating a popular democratic political system in South Africa. The emerging government was faced with a plethora of administrative, social, economic and political challenges. In 1996, the Government of National Unity (GNU), as part of its policy for national reconciliation, established a commission of enquiry known as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. The commission’s mandate was to investigate various crimes committed by both the regime and other opposition political organisations, including the liberation movement. The findings of the commission revealed that the apartheid regime and its agencies, the Inkatha Freedom Party, IFP, the African National Congress, ANC, and other political groupings had committed varying degrees of abuses on fundamental civil liberties in South Africa. It could be argued that South Africa’s democratic elections produced an outcome which closely paralleled the Namibian experience and not that of Angola. The advent of a new political dispensation was welcomed and accepted beyond the borders of South Africa. The tri-cameral parliament with its dominant white house, token houses for ‘Coloured’ and ‘Indian’ populations and total exclusion of African blacks, disappeared and was superseded by a democratically elected non-racial parliament. The homeland or Bantustan structures, i.e. the four (4) ‘independent’ and the six (6) ‘self-governing’ homelands melted away, capitulated or were deposed in the headlong and non-compulsive run-up to South Africa’s first democratic elections. Although the structures disappeared, their legacy lingered on in the form of a multiplicity of effects with which South Africa has had to grapple for years to come. Nominally the architects of apartheid’s compulsion survived the transfer of power to a majority government. Given their past record, they were extremely fortunate not to have been summarily banished to the political wilderness. This could be attributed either to the generosity of spirit displayed by the majority or to the good sense of the majority in pursuit of a compromise path to limit the possibility of violent conflict, or perhaps a mixture of both. A democracy, given the seminal role played by the security establishment as the instrument of compulsion and destabilisation, required security institutions for its continued well-being. Thus, the transformation of these institutions from instruments of compulsion to friendly protectors of civil liberties was crucial. Thus, from 1996 onwards, the new South Africa was substantially free from the kind of political violence which had resulted in deaths on an on-going basis.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Library and Information Science at the Department of Library and Information Science at the University Of Zululand, South Africa, 2015 / The present study aims to create awareness of infopreneurship practice amongst LIS graduates and to train LIS students to acquire all necessary skills for effective infoprenuership practice in this present ICT proliferated society. The study will also help to save graduates from extraordinary increases in the rate of unemployment and the high rate of poverty in our present economy. Infopreneurship practice is linked to entrepreneurship as it describes individuals that sell and market information products and services mostly through the internet and other traditional mediums with the intention of making profits as a means of livelihood. Infopreneurs are experts in the information field/discipline that provide specialized information services in exchange for money. Infopreneurship is an information-based business practice, by information specialists and professionals, as a way of providing specialized information products and services to satisfy customers’ needs, in exchange for money. Studies of Ocholla (1999); David and Dube (2013); Allen (2001); Chandler (2007); and Mason and Dobson (2008) have identified the challenge of increased rates of unemployment of Library and Information Sciences (LIS) graduates. This is due, in part, to the limited availability of library jobs. The poor level of adequate planed awareness programme of infopreneurship and the changes of technology is alarming. The purpose of this study is to investigate the status and development of infopreneurship in Nigeria and South Africa. Therefore, it is important to understand the level of awareness of infopreneurship practices among LIS graduates and to ensure LIS students acquire all necessary skills for effective infopreneurship in the present day ICT community. The study focused on information-based businesses owned by LIS graduates and other graduates of related fields, in selected cities from the two countries. The objectives of this study are: To describe and explain the concepts infopreneurship in the informal sector. To establish the level of those graduates involved in infopreneurship from the eight (8) cluster information fields/disciplines. To investigate and describe the areas and/or types of infopreneurship.  To investigate the impact infopreneurship has on information entrepreneurers and societal development. To find out what challenges infopreneurers encounter. To find solutions that will help to improve infopreneurship practice in Nigeria South Africa. A Case study/qualitative content analysis research methodology was applied for this study. The interview was the major instrument used to gather responses from information-based business owners. It was supported by data gathered from the observation method. A combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques of non-probability sampling methods were used to generate the sample size, and frame, from the eight clustered information business categories of respondents for this study. The target population for this study was chosen from the lists of all registered information-based businesses as well as LIS graduates practicing infopreneurship in Nigeria and South Africa. The sample size of 160 information-based business owners, LIS graduates and others related information discipline was picked from eight (8) clustered business areas and/or discipline,which include information communication technology (ICTs), mass media/communication, telecommunication, libraries, archive and records management centers, publishing and printing sectors, computer science, and LIS education. The findings show that infopreneurship is a growing practice in both countries, although a majority of those individuals practicing infopreneurship are not familiar with the term infopreneurship. The study also revealed the numbers of LIS graduates involves in the infopreneurship practice, despite the increase growth in this field that few LIS graduates are involved in infopreneurship practice in both countries. However, infopreneurship in recent times, has added more new area/types to the practice such as, internet blogging, software and hardware installation, tracking services, trouble shooting, web designing, programming, CCTV installation, online TV, amongst others. Infopreneurship practice has served as an eye opener to LIS graduates and other related fields of studies for job opportunity and self-dependency. The majority of graduates that joined the information-based business sector joined because of the need for money to survive and escape the high rate of poverty in society. Infopreneurers are faced with different challenges such as insufficient funding, equipment, and infrastructure. An additional issue is the difficulty in licensing of businesses, due to the high cost and the unnecessary requirement for registration of businesses and the tax imposed on smaller infopreneurs is outrageous. The study recommends that LIS schools create more awareness of infopreneurship practice among students, and also review the infopreneurship courses, or include learning content that focuses on business skills acquisition and practical vocational skills acquisition programs. The study also recommends that governments provide a positive support plan by creating a good business atmosphere for young graduates who want to start their personal business.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Zululand in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy: Community Psychology in the Department of Psychology, 2008. / Increasing amounts of scientific evidence has suggested mat a mind-body exercise, such as Tai Chi, is related to improvements in mental health, emotional well-being and stress reduction. No prior study has examined the effect of Tai Chi exercise amongst street children. Working within the context of community health psychology, the present study evaluated a Tai Chi program with street children within the South African context. The research design was quasi-experimental with the participants from places of safety within the surrounds of Durban attending Tai Chi exercise sessions twice per week for 16 weeks. This programme was pre- and post-tested with a focus group interview and Carol Ryff s standardized psychological well-being scale. Statistically significant improvements in the following measures of psychological well-being were found: autonomy, personal growth, environmental mastery, purpose in life, positive relations with others and total psychological well-being. Qualitative findings revealed an increase in positive feelings, improved physical fitness and mental health, and stress reduction. Further outcome evaluations by stakeholders (child care worker, Department of Health Officials, Tai Chi teacher) supported the qualitative findings, as well as indicating increased self-confidence and a positive synergy within the group. / The South African National Research Foundation (NRF)

A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Masters of Recreation and Tourism in the Centre for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, 2007. / Recreation as a profession is new in South Africa. In the past not much concern was given to the provision and utilisation of recreation facilities for the previously disadvantaged communities. Recreation has not been taken as a significant component of life for Blacks because of the apartheid system that existed. In the recent history of South Africa, recreation facilities were mainly made available to the White population areas, with Black areas and being neglected. Recent years have seen the expansion of recreation services throughout the country. Since the 1994 election a new trend for recreation participation has emerged. This has increased the demand for provision of recreation facilities. This trend has caused the authorities, nationally, provincially and locally, to extend facility provision for all the communities and age groups of South Africa. The government, through the Department of Sport and Recreation (DSR), is becoming involved in the development of recreation infrastructure and facilities. The focus of this study is to investigate the provision and utilisation of recreation facilities for youth in Ngwelezane. Every person has a right to recreation facilities as well as a right to participate in them, therefore it was the main aim of this study to find out if these rights were honoured. The research problem was formulated within the framework of demand and supply model. There is a great backlog that exists in the provision of recreation facilities in the previously disadvantaged areas. Thus there is a need to address the imbalances and remaining injustices of the past as far as the provision of recreation facilities, especially in Black townships. Data was collected by means of interviews and questionnaires that were administered to 128 youth of Ngwelezane Township to establish if they have enough recreation facilities and if these facilities are available and accessible. Data analysis was accomplished through using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). The method used for analysing information appeared to be effective because clear outcomes of the finding were achieved. The most important findings were that, there is a relatively low provision and participation in recreation activities among the Black youth in the study area. The latter suggests the existence of a great demand for recreation facilities, with the exception of soccer and netball facilities. It was further discovered that a large percentage of youth would like to be provided with recreation facilities. A greater segment of youth would like to be provided with recreation facilities. If there is shortage of recreation facilities something needs to be done to provide these facilities. It was also discovered that the local municipality should play a major role in the provision of recreation facilities compared to other organizations. This is the big challenge that the local government is facing. Since local municipality is the government that is closest to the people and represents the interests of the residents, it is responsible for fulfilling the developmental role (DLG; 1998). Recreation plays an important role in the lives of individuals, the local community and the nation at large. There is a great responsibility on stakeholders, including all spheres of government, to actively contribute towards raising the levels provision and participation in organised sport and recreation in the country. The government, through the Department of Sport and Recreation (DSR), may be on the right track encouraging the development of recreation infrastructure and facilities, through the programme "Getting the Nation to Play". Therefore, it is clear that recreation facilities need to be provided for youth in the study area, so that they are able to participate in recreation activities. Further that the local government needs to play a leading role to ensure adequate provision of recreation facilities at Ngwelezane Township.

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of History, Faculty of Arts at the University of Zululand, 2018. / This research study delves into the role of the international community towards dismantling the apartheid regime in South Africa during the period 1960-1990. It argues that racial discrimination in apartheid South Africa came into being gradually over the centuries of white settlement that began when the Dutch East India Company founded a colony on the Cape in 1652. Dutch settlers were joined by English colonials who fought and won control of South Africa at the end of the nineteenth century. White control followed independence from Britain and the descendents of Dutch setters regained political power when the Afrikaner-dominated National Party (NP), which governed South Africa until 1994, won all-white elections in 1948. One of the National Party’s main goals was to codify centuries of de facto white domination. The legislative cornerstones of apartheid – including the Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 (prohibiting marriage between people of different races), the Population Registration Act and Group Areas Act, both of 1950, the Reservation of Separate Amenities and Bantu Education Bills both of 1953 – constructed distinct racial categories, and sought to ensure that racial groups were kept physically separate; and that black, Asian, and coloured South Africans receive inferior education and remain weak in political and economic terms. This research study posits that collective action against apartheid came out of, and involved, a number of different historical experiences, related to different historical processes and structural contexts. The reaction of the outside world to the development of apartheid was widespread and posed a sustained challenge to the South African regime, which, facing myriad internal and external threats, eventually capitulated to make way for a new, democratic dispensation during the 1990s. Central to the argument in this research study is that while countries throughout the world took various measures to weaken and topple apartheid, it was particularly the anti-apartheid movements in the United Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), support from the Soviet Union, pressure by the United Nations (UN), the OAU and the Frontline States that mounted the most serious of these challenges to the apartheid state.

Thesis submitted in part fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy (Community Psychology) in the Department of Psychology at the University of Zululand, 2006. / A number of ex-combattees in South Africa have been faced with several problems covering socio-economic to psychological difficulties since they returned to the country Many of them are apparently stressed, but the unemployed ones seem to be the most affected. They are found mainly in trauma clinics in South Africa. However, no study has been undertaken to determine their various specific problems. This is the first formal study which explores the ex-combattees. The intention of this research was to explore the experiences of ex-combattees in the Gauteng Province using a phenomenological approach. The violent conflicts of South Africa's liberation struggle left many ex-combattees with post-traumatic stress disorders. While various governmental and non-governmental organisations have offered trauma counselling and various other forms of support for ex-combattees. many have not re¬integrated into society Some live without dignity in situations of extreme poverty and social dislocation or become involved in violent crime as well as ongoing political and social instability in the communities where they reside. As pan of an ongoing trauma counselling programme, this research explicated narrations from e\-combattees with regard to their experiences and solutions to their problems in terms of a model, which included psycho-social support, skills development, economic empowerment, education, training, job placement and small business development. The unemployed ex-combattees feel sold out by their comrades, and some of them have lost trust in the government. Some of their families members do not believe that they were at equal levels with the ones who were placed in government posts and in the arm>. They have some suspicions that their unemployed ex-combattee family members contributed to the struggle in the same way as they explained. Some frictions have emerged between the ex-combattees and their families, as well as between ex-combattees and communities in which they live.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Educationis in the Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education, University of Zululand, South Africa, 2011. / Substance use is on the increase among the youth in South Africa. Traditional concern about the youth (as the future of South Africa), and the portrayals in the media of severe drug and alcohol use among the country‟s youth have contributed to the need for research into this issue. Drugs and alcohol also have a close link to crime. The aim of this study is to investigate and report the prevalence of substance use and the need for intervention among male youth offenders at the Pollsmoor Youth Centre, in the Western Cape Province. The research has attempted to create an understanding of male youth drug abusers‟ attitudes towards intervention and rehabilitation programmes and also the Correctional Service‟s role in managing substance abuse. A survey research methodology using questionnaires has been employed. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The sample population consisted of the sentenced male youth offenders at the Pollsmoor Youth Centre. The results of the survey indicated that “Tik” (methamphetamines or crystal meths) was the most popular substance of choice in this sample. Tik was 23 % more popular than its nearest rival, cannabis. Tobacco was the most widely used drug owing to it being legal and obtainable at the Centre‟s shops. The majority of male youth offenders (74 %) believed that an intervention programme was necessary as part of their rehabilitation. The findings indicated that a department or unit needs to be established to handle the increasing drug abuse problem. The unit should identify substance abusers on admittance and place them on a rehabilitation programme. If necessary this programme should continue in their community after release from the correctional centre.

A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the course-work degree of Master of Recreation and Tourism in the Centre for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, 2003. / Tourism is an industry that will be able to alleviate poverty problems for many developing countries. The great multiplier effect in this industry means that every unit of tourist expenditure goes through several rounds of income creation before its effect is exhausted. South Africa, regarded as one of the new destinations, has a chance to plan tourism activities so as to promote sustainable development and avoid the known pitfalls and negative effects of this industry. This means that all its tourism related policies, such as Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Sports and Recreation and Reconstruction and Development, should be based on the principles of sustainable development. The Durban Metropolitan Area, and its sub-areas, is one of the popular destinations in the KwaZulu-Natal. The mission of the Durban Metro, also called Ethekwini Municipality, is to turn this region into South Africa's premier 'playground'. Its strategies to realise this dream include among other things: the development of Ushaka Marine Island Park, the Suncoast casino, the Sugar Mill casino, and many other initiatives. Amanzimtoti District is part of Ethekwini Municipality, known as the South Operational Entity (SOE). It therefore should share the vision of the Durban Metro, and also contribute to alleviating unemployment as well as congestion problems for the total area. This study was conducted with a view of finding out if there were any recreation and tourism-related developments taking place in Amanzimtoti, as well as its potential and standing as a tourist destination. On the whole, the lack of tourism awareness in the study area has been identified as a major hindrance to a superior level of tourism development, promotion and delivery. There seem to be lapses in communication between the tourism stakeholders such as authorities, local communities, service providers and the tourists themselves. The findings of this study went a long way and conclusively established that Amanzimtoti, as an important component of the Durban Metropolitan area, has not reached its full potential as a tourist destination in terms of the existing recreation and tourism infrastructure and facilities. In addition, perceptions of local authorities, communities and visiting tourists, indicate that the area has not reached maturity as a tourism resort, service area and destination.

Submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Psychology at the University of Zululand, 1994. / The need for a psychology that addresses problems of all racial groups in South Africa has long been documented. Studies have indicated that modern health care services are inadequate and not accessible to all population groups in this country. The needs and problems in South Africa are too complicated to be treated by Western therapies alone. What seem to have been a viable alter¬native are the services rendered to Blacks by traditional doctors, diviners, faith healers and the African Independent Churches. The aim of this study was an exploratory psychological investigation into the nature of helping human relations in an African Independent Church. A sample of 18 respondents was randomly selected from members of the St. John's Apostolic Faith Mission Church, Harrismith. The phenomenological research methodology was used to elicit descriptions from the subjects regarding their experiences and meaning of being members of that particular church. The descriptions of the respondents were tape recorded, transcribed and dissected into natural meaning units which were blocked into themes. The natural meaning units and the themes of each subject were synthesised into a general concise description in psychological language. This descriptive statement, which was referred to as situated structure, disclosed the unique and es¬sential meaning the phenomenon had for each individual. Those themes that were expressed and shared by the majority of the sub¬jects were grouped into a general structure of six categories, namely, spiritual helping, prayer healing, holy water, cohesive-ness, existential assistance and catharsis. The researcher validated the descriptions by going back to respondents and asking them whether his synthesis accurately revealed their experiences. Each respondent commented on the general structure by stating on a subjective eleven point scale (0-10) the degree to which the general structure reflected his/her experiences. The respondents' ratings indicated that the general structure was a fairly accurate reflection of their experiences as members of this particular church. There was sig¬nificant agreement among the eighteen respondents in ranking the six categories. This means that there was significant agreement¬about what the subj ects generally experienced as members of the St. John's Apostolic Faith Mission Church and about their ex¬periences . In view of literature review of other African Independent Churches the researcher could generalize that human helping rela¬tions in the African Independent Churches exist essentially in the aforementioned six main forms. It was recommended that similar research be conducted in other African Independent Churches such as the ZCC, Church of Nazarites and the Mahon Mission. The practices of the AIC's could be in¬cluded in the curricula of the training of mental health care workers, clients could benefit from cross referrals between West¬ern practitioners and the healers of the African Independent Churches.

A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of History at the University of Zululand, 1994. / Faction fighting in Msinga started because of the shortage of land in this division. The oldest residents of the valley, the Sithole, aMachunu and aBathembu lived together very peacefully. Trouble started after the Colonial Government's demarcation of the valley into a reserve. Hundreds of people driven away from various parts of Natal arrived. These people had been removed from their areas because the Government needed those areas for settling white colonists. This part of Natal is arid, hilly and rocky. As a result, subsistence economy in the form of agriculture declined to a very large extent. The Government had no economic policy for these people. Starvation soon made the izizwe of the valley restless. Their amakhosi could not help them in any way. Eventually, it was a question of everyone struggling for survival. It was, for instance, not possible for aMabaso to live in peace with aBathembu because their location was completely surrounded by that of aBathembu. Inkosi Mganu Mvelase of aBathembu was not a war-like ruler but his neighbour, Inkosi Thulwana Ndabezitha of aMabaso had many grievances regarding land. In the long run, these amakhosi became enemies. Their izizwe started trying to push each other out of the reserve. When the two izizwe were up in arms against each other, it was the beginning of a tragedy for the whole division. Faction fighting that broke out between the two izizwe gave birth to the rest of the wars and the lamentable system of alliances. The attitude of the white civil servants towards Inkosi Kula Majozi worsened the state of the reserve. The enmity between the Sithole and aMaqamu was further aggravated by the partition of aMaqamu location after the deposition and exile of Inkosi Kula. The Government also proved to be inconsiderate of the feelings of aMaqamu by putting some of them under Inkosi Sibindi of aMabomvu. The Government was fully aware of the enmity between the two izizwe. Some of aMaqamu found themselves under Inkosi Bhande Sithole. When Inkosi Kula was reinstated, these people made a lot of noise demanding to be under their own inkosi. Fighting subsided in 1906, but that did not mean that the Government had succeeded in stopping faction fighting in the reserve. This was proved by the outbreaks of devastating wars between aBathembu and aMachunu in 1922 and 1944. The main significance of faction fighting is that it affects all aspects of life of the people involved. It is still very difficult to develop these victims economically and even educationally. The easy availability of guns has made matters far worse, even in the absence of a faction fight. Young men, most of whom with no formal schooling, easily get trapped in hooliganism. ^Employment chances are always slim. There are absolutely no activities to keep these young people occupied. They openly live by crime. To most of them, stealing is the way of life. They are nsed as hired killers only to meet the same fate themselves eventually. Even those who have access to arable land, show no interest in v i cultivating the soil. These wasted children have no way of making themselves economically productive. They are a burden to themselves and to the Government. Their built-in culture of fighting, has taught them to look down upon any man who does not possess a gun. Such a man is derogatorily referred to as a woman. When a faction fight breaks out, schools are usually disturbed because boys are bound to join their ward male members. They remain in hiding, preparing for attack or counter-attack, until fighting is over. Should fighting intensify, schools stop functioning altogether. Many boys leave school in such circumstances The question that remains now is, who or what will stop the war in Msinga? Unless a solution is found, to remedy the situation and restore dignity to these people, the future of Msinga will remain bleak