Parasitoid wasps are an important group of organisms in need of systematic revision. This dissertation examines the cosmopolitan parasitoid wasp genus Cremnops. It is a compilation of three projects and significantly advances the taxonomic foundation of the genus. The New World species of the genus Cremnops are revised. Thirty-three species of Cremnops are treated; five are described as new, i.e., C. bertae sp. nov., C. cluttsis sp. nov., C. nymphius sp. nov., C. wileycoyotius sp. nov. and C. witkopegasus sp. nov. Six species are synonymized, i.e., Cremnops caribensis Berta 1998, is synonymized under C. guanicanus Wolcott 1924; C. nigrosternum (Morrison 1917) is synonymized under C. haematodes (Brullé 1846); C. punctatus Berta 1998, is synonymized under C. marshi Berta 1998; C. sharkei Berta 1998, is synonymized under C. montrealensis (Morrison 1917); C. turrialbae Berta de Fernandez 1998, is synonymized under C. ferrugineus (Cameron 1887); and C. misionensis Berta 1987, is synonymized under C. slossonae (Morrison 1917). Cremnops florissanticola is transferred to its original combination Bracon florissanticola Cockerell 1919, st. rev. The species concept Cremnops desertor and its complicated taxonomic history are discussed. A phylogenetic distance tree, based on COI data, is used to help delimit species. The recognition of C. alterans Enderlein and C. malayensis Bhat is proposed. I propose new combinations for five African species that are currently placed in Cremnops, i.e., C. atripennis Szépligeti 1914 and C. elegantissima Szépligeti 1908 are moved to Disophrys; C. borealis (Szépligeti 1914) and C. rubrigaster Masi 1944 are moved to Biroia; and C. pulchripennis Szépligeti 1905 is moved to and renamed Biroia neopulchipennis. These changes result in Disophrys atripennis (Szépligeti 1915) becoming a junior homonym, which is changed to Disophrys szatripennis. Additionally, two species are proposed as nomen dubia: C. rufitarsis Szépligeti 1913 and C. schubotzi Szépligeti 1915. Included are a molecular phylogeny, a dichotomous key, links to distribution maps, an electronic interactive key, images of holotypes, and suggestions for further research.

Der Hirschkäfer ist der größte und markanteste heimische Käfer und in vielen Regionen sehr selten geworden. Diesen typischen Bewohner alter Laub- und Obstbäume sowie ihrer Stubben und Wurzeln stellt die reich bebilderte Broschüre vor. Sie macht auf die Gefährdungsursachen aufmerksam und enthält zahlreiche Hinweise, wie Waldbesitzer und Eigentümer oder Nutzer von Grundstücken zur Erhaltung des Lebensraums und damit auch gleichzeitig zum Schutz des Hirschkäfers und vieler anderer Tier- und Pflanzenarten beitragen können.

The neotropical lizard genus Anolis is an important model system for studies of the ecology and evolution of animal diversity. One of the most striking elements of Anolis diversity is found in the morphology of the dewlap, an extensible flap of colored skin on the throat that anoles use to communicate during social interactions. The evolutionary forces that have promoted the evolution of dewlap diversity are poorly understood. A study of reproductive success in A. carolinensis showed for the first time that dewlap color is currently under selection in an anole (Chapter 1). However, this is unlikely to be a result of intrasexual competition because neither dewlap morphology nor reproductive success are related to male territory size or quality. Instead the dewlap may be under intersexual selection from female mate choice. In addition to sexual selection, the dewlap may evolve in response to a variety of other processes such as species recognition, predation, sensory drive, or a combination of these. A study of variation among populations of a single species, A. sagrei, revealed that the dewlap may be undergoing rapid adaptive diversification driven by several of these processes simultaneously (Chapter 2), while a study of variation among species in dewlap size showed that similar processes are likely shaping the evolution of the dewlap in female anoles (Chapter 3). In a case study of male-female pair formation in the Costa Rican anole A. limifrons, dewlap size or color were not good predictors of which males would form pairs and which would not, though males and females that were similar in size were found to form pairs more often than animals that were dissimilar in size (Chapter 4). Finally, a study of the correlated evolution of traits related to locomotion in anoles found that morphology, behavior, and habitat use evolve in tandem among 31 species of anoles from the Greater Antilles (Chapter 5). Together, these studies suggest that the evolutionary ecology of anoles is more complex than previously thought, and that future studies of the dewlap may provide more general insight into the evolution of diversity of animal ornaments.

Background and Aims Sexual deception is a species-specific pollination strategy commonly found in Orchidaceae. Sexually deceptive orchids lure male insect pollinators by mimicking the sex pheromones and/or appearance of female insects, which elicit copulatory behaviour with the flower by the male insects. This specialised pollination strategy has recently been found in a Pterostylis species in Australia. Pterostylis orchids also occur in New Zealand, although very few studies have been done on this genus, and no such specialised insect pollination strategy has been documented in New Zealand. Methods I investigated the breeding system and pollinators of three Pterostylis spp. to determine whether sexual deception may be operating in P. oliveri, P. irsoniana and P. venosa growing in native beech forests in Arthur's Pass. We also investigated the floral headspace volatiles of P. oliveri to determine which compounds are present, and which may be responsible for pollinator attraction. Key Results Breeding system experiments suggest that P. oliveri and P. irsoniana are self compatible, but exclusively dependent on insects for pollination. Only male fungus gnats (Diptera: Mycetophilidae) were found carrying pollinia attached to their thoraxes in traps set up over the flowers. Insect identification and ITS DNA analysis of the pollinia showed that each orchid species was pollinated by a specific fungus gnat species; Mycetophila latifascia males found with pollen of P. oliveri; Morganiella fusca males found with pollen of P. irsoniana; and Tetragoneura sp. males found with pollen of P. venosa. Field tests of an unidentified compound found in headspace volatiles of P. oliveri did not attract any Mycetophila latifascia males. Conclusions These results indicate that pollination via sexual deception may be operating in these three Pterostylis spp. However, further floral volatile analyses are required to confirm whether the flowers emit volatile compounds that resemble the sex pheromones of the specific pollinators.

Curcumin is one of the major curcuminoids produced by the ginger family Zingiberaceae. These curcuminoids possess pharmacological properties that include anticancer activities. We have evaluated some synthetic curcumin analogues that have shown potential as anticancer drugs. These antineoplastic agents bearing the 1,5-diaryl-3-oxo-1,4-pentadienyl pharmacophore are electrophiles which are designed to preferentially react with sulfhydryl groups present in proteins as opposed to amino and hydroxyl groups present in DNA. In previous pilot studies, three derivatives examined in this thesis showed inhibition towards human cancer cell lines such as Molt 4/C8 and CEM T-lymphocytes. In this thesis work, I determined the cytotoxicity of these derivatives and curcumin towards human colon cancer (HCT-116) cells and also normal colon epithelial (CRL-1790) cells, and examined the possible mechanism(s) involved. I hypothesized that they act via induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which elicit a transient surge of mitochondrial ROS generation and a phenomenon known as ROS-induced ROS release (RIRR), along with the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and mitochondrion –dependent apoptosis. I asked whether these agents react with some of the key protein thiols in the mitochondria whose oxidation/alkylation results in mitochondrion - dependent apoptosis. NC-2109 and NC-2346 were found to be potent cytotoxic agents based on their GI50 values of 0.87 ± 0.38 μM and 0.90 ± 0.22 μM, respectively, and were more potent than the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (GI50 = 5.47 ± 0.55 μM) and curcumin (GI50 = 3.50 ± 0.36 μM). However NC-2109 was found to have a better selectivity towards cancer cells over normal cells (a selectivity index of 18.81 versus 5-FU, curcumin and NC-2346 which had selectivity indices of 1.87, 16.75 and 4.61, respectively). In the investigations of the mechanisms involved, both curcumin and curcumin analogues were able to induce mitochondrial ROS production. Moreover, curcumin and its synthetic counterparts showed a biphasic ROS profile which is most characteristic of RIRR. Treatment with these agents also led to the disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential, suggesting oxidation of protein thiols and the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore which is an important step to initiate mitochondria-directed apoptosis. This possibility was confirmed based on GSSG/GSH ratios, since curcumin, NC-2346 and NC-2109 all produced a higher GSSG/GSH ratio than the controls. In addition to their ability to depolarize the mitochondrial membrane in HCT-116 cells, that these molecules acted via the mitochondrial pathway were further authenticated based on their ability to induce mitochondrial swelling in rat liver mitochondria. In another part of this thesis I evaluated the involvement of the critical thiol protein adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), a bifunctional protein that plays a central role in mitochondrial apoptosis. ANT has four different isoforms; ANT1 and ANT3 are proapoptotic, while ANT2 and ANT4 are antiapoptotic and are overexpressed in cancer states. A combination approach using ANT2 siRNA however did not conclusively show whether these agents acted synergistically with ANT2 knockdown to potentiate mitochondria-mediated cell death. An alternative combination approach was the use of carboxyatractyloside (CAT) which binds to and retains ANT in its ‘c’ conformation, exposing thiols and potentially driving a cell towards programmed cell death. The presence of CAT enhanced the ability of curcumin and its synthetic analogs to collapse the mitochondrial membrane potential, an important step in mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis. In conclusion, curcumin and the curcumin analogue NC-2109 were found to be cytotoxic in vitro, towards HCT-116 cells and also showed good selectivity. In addition, these two molecules were found to be ROS inducers, and coincidentally oxidized cellular thiols and caused depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential. The results support a mechanism of mitochondrial-mediated cell death upon MPT pore formation (mitochondrial swelling), perhaps involving ANT2. This conclusion was further supported by the potentiation of cell death in the presence of the ANT2 inhibitor, CAT.

Urbanization, the creation of cities and their growth, is a process with profound implications for the diversity and community composition of local ecosystems. Urban environments are made up of a diverse patchwork of natural, seminatural and modified habitats that might harbor different plant and animal communities. Frequently, they include invasive or exotic organisms. In arid environments in particular, irrigated spaces constitute a novel habitat that contrasts heavily with natural environments. In the present study, I considered the biodiversity and composition of the ant communities in contrasting environments within the urban area of Tucson, Arizona. First, I assessed the relationship between plant productivity, measured using satellite imagery, ant abundance and ant diversity in irrigated parks, urban desert remnants and natural desert habitat. I found no significant differences in ant diversity among these habitats, despite clear differences in abundance and productivity. Next I considered the differences in ant species composition among the assemblages in the same three habitats. I found that each habitat included a distinct ant community, although those from desert remnants and natural desert were functionally similar to each other. Irrigated parks showed a potential to act as refuges for ant species threatened by the effects of climate change, but they also included a greater abundance of ants considered pests. Finally, I considered some of the characteristics behind the success of the only widespread exotic ant species found in urban habitats in Tucson: the dark rover ant (Brachymyrmex patagonicus).These ants were found in large numbers in every park sampled. As a recently introduced species, little was known of their biology. Colonies of these ants displayed aggression among each other which makes it impossible for them to form large interconnected networks of nests. Although colonies occupied nearby nests in the laboratory, under field conditions, each colony inhabited a small territory.

Climate changes in temperature and precipitation are already occurring and are projected to further exhibit increasing temperature and precipitation extremes and increasing variation. Such increased temperature variation and decreased precipitation are likely to have a profound impact on vegetation communities, particularly in regions that are dominated by extreme temperatures and strongly seasonal precipitation events. Both temperature and precipitation are tightly linked to vegetation growth and distribution, and in regions such as the U.S. desert southwest, there are a number of rare and endangered species that have a particularly tight knit relationship with their environment. Here, I examine the relationship between these ecohydrological drivers and a specific, little- researched cactus: the Pima Pineapple Cactus (Coryphantha scheeri var. robustispina). C. scheeri is a small, hemispherical cactus that resides in the Santa Cruz and Altar Valleys of Southern Arizona, and very little is known about the conditions that promote C. scheeri distribution and growth. To provide information that may aide in managing this species, I investigate aspects of the distribution and the phenology of this species. With respect to distribution, I hypothesize that (H1) C. scheeri locations are associated with spatial physical and climatic data within its geographic limits. A framework describing the climatic associations of C. scheeri would enable species managers to take advantage of suitable habitat when opportunities arise. With respect to phenology, within established C. scheeri habitat we lack a clear understanding of the impact ecohydrological factors can have on reproduction and size. Therefore, I also hypothesize (H2) that C. scheeri flowering phenology is triggered by available moisture, which may be in the form of precipitation, humidity, or soil moisture. My results indicate that through the use of the classification tree, C. scheeri habitat is strongly associated with climatic and physical variables at a state-wide scale; these associations indicate large losses of suitable habitat under future projected climate scenarios. Additionally, I find that C. scheeri flowering phenology appears to be associated with precipitation and the resulting increase of soil moisture; the data are also suggestive that bud formation might be associated with water-year growing degree day. Because the results indicate a tight coupling with climatic variables, with most suitable habitat within the current range in Arizona projected to be lost under future climate, I suggest managers may be inclined to increase monitoring C. scheeri in an ecohydrological context relative to the variables identified here and to consider conditions and locations where supplemental watering or microclimate amelioration could be beneficial for the species.

Quinones represent an important class of endogenous compounds such as neurotransmitters and coenzyme Q10, electrophilic xenobiotics and environmental toxicants that have known reactivity based on their ability to redox cycle and generate oxidative stress, as well as to alkylate target proteins. 1,4-Benzoquinone (BQ) is a reactive quinone that we have used to help predict target residue covalent binding by such compounds. Hydroquinone glutathione conjugates (HQ-GSH) cause renal cell necrosis by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and by adducting proteins preferentially localized in the S3 segment of the renal proximal tubules. In vitro experimentation using model peptides and proteins have identified cysteine, lysine, arginine, and glutamic acid as amino acids targeted for quinone-thioether adduction. By mimicking a standard protein digestion protocol (100 mM ammonium bicarbonate pH 7.5, or 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5), we demonstrated that cysteine-BQ adducts are unstable. Taken together, these results indicate that BQ-adduct formation on cysteine residues may be a transient interaction, where physiological conditions may play a role in adduct stability. In vivo experimentation following administration of 2-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ (MGHQ, 400 μmol/kg, iv, 2 hr) to Long Evans rats identified the specific site of quinone-thioether protein adduction on a number of proteins. Urinary proteins were isolated, and either trypsin digested en masse and analyzed by multi-dimensional protein identification technology (MuDPIT) or, following SDS-PAGE, single immunopositive bands were excised, trypsin digested and analysed by LC-MSMS. Following site-specific identification of adducts, 3-dimensional protein modeling of adducts on the protein was performed as a way to reveal the potential structural consequence of the modification on 3D structure. The outer stripe of the outer medulla (OSOM) is the target site of protein adduction caused by quinone-thioethers. Using a 2DGE-Western blot approach, in combination with an extensive knowledge of quinol-thioether chemistry, LC-MSMS, and the latest MSMS analysis software, we identified the specific amino acid site of adduction on 17 unique peptides from 34 target proteins within the OSOM. Of the 22 bands analyzed, adducted peptides were identified in 11 of them. Many of the target proteins identified have previously been identified as a target of other electrophiles, producing additional evidence that such protein adduction is selective rather than random. The site-specific identification of covalently adducted proteins is a prerequisite for understanding the biological significance of chemical-induced PTMs and the subsequent toxicological response.

A goal of efforts to restore altered ecosystems is to reestablish natural disturbance processes, such as fire, that govern ecosystem structure and function. In ecosystems where structure has changed in response to human activities, however, ecosystem drivers may function differently and their reestablishment could yield unexpected or undesired consequences. Lehmann lovegrass, Eragrostis lehmanniana, a perennial bunchgrass from Africa, was introduced to grasslands in the southwestern United States in the 1930s and has since increased in distribution and dominance. Reintroducing fire has been proposed as a mechanism by which to restore semi-desert grasslands by reducing the dominance of nonnative plants, despite the altered plant community.To assess the effect of nonnative grass on animals, between 2000 and 2004 we sampled 54 plots across a gradient of invasion by nonnative grass and quantified variation in presence, abundance, and richness of insects and small mammals. For small mammals, we used a framework we developed to estimate abundance when data are sparse. The number of insect orders, families, and morphospecies, as well as overall abundance decreased as nonnative grass increased. Many insect families that decreased in abundance as nonnative grass increased were comprised of herbivorous species, suggesting that increases in nonnative grass may have reduced abundance and quality of plant foods. Abundance of several species of murid rodents increased and several species of heteromyid rodents decreased as nonnative grass increased, indicating clear changes in habitat for these species of small mammals.To assess the interactive effects of prescribed fire on small mammals in these altered ecosystems, we performed a randomized experiment where we applied prescribed fire on 36 of 54 plots. The effects of fire on many small mammal populations and the composition of the small mammal community varied along the invasion gradient, suggesting that fire functions differently inareas dominated by nonnative plants relative to those dominated by native plants. Invasion by this nonnative grass has clearly shifted the composition of faunal communities in semi-desert grasslands and has altered ecosystem processes, therefore reestablishing fire is not likely to be an omnibus solution for restoration.

Metastatic bone cancer is the most common cause of pain in patients with malignant tumors. Prolonged opioid treatment remains the primary method to treat pain in these patients. Sustained morphine exposure enhances both bone cancer-induced pain and bone loss in mice implanted with sarcoma cells. Sustained treatment of bone marrow cultures with morphine results in COX-2 dependent upregulation of RANKL and PGE2, and suppression of OPG. This results in increased osteoclastogenesis which was dependent on COX-2 and OPG/RANKL regulatory axis. Treatment with morphine does not induce any direct changes in osteoclasts or sarcoma cells. The in vitro data was validated in the animals where morphine induces an increase in the osteoclastogenesis and RANKL, and suppresses OPG. These data indicate that morphine enhances osteoclastogenesis by modulating the OPG/RANKL regulatory axis in osteoblasts through a COX-2 dependent mechanism.Prolonged opioid exposure induces an opioid-receptor dependent hyperalgesia in humans and in animals. Studying the direct effect of opioids on primary sensory neurons we demonstrate a modest increase in CGRP cellular content that was not opioid-receptor dependent. Although dynorphin A (2-13) and PGE2 enhanced the release of the neuropeptide, pretreatment with opioids does not influence the capsaicin or KCl evoked CGRP release. These date indicate that the neurochemical changes seen in vivo may be dependent on factors upregulated in the periphery and/or the CNS.It has been demonstrated that sensory neurons innervating the femur express markers of neuronal injury and the intramedullary region of the femur becomes devoid of nerve fibers as the tumor expands. In this study we demonstrate that the sarcoma cells generate high levels of ROS and release hydrogen peroxide into the surrounding space, which induces death and injury to both sensory neurons and glia. This death was prevented by the anti-oxidants BHA and catalase. The present study provides evidence that ROS released by cancer cells can directly lead to injury and death of sensory neurons. ROS induced injury may be one of the mechanism through which sensory neurons are injured in the murine bone cancer pain model.