Background: Downhill running involves eccentric contractions of the gluteal, quadriceps, hamstring and calf muscles and the lengthening of muscle fibres as they contract. Several studies have demonstrated that this type of prolonged eccentrically biased exercise induces tissue damage and subsequent enhancement of an inflammatory response. Traumeel® S (Heel GmbH, Baden-Baden, Germany) is a homeopathic-complex used to treat trauma and inflammatory processes that is sold as an over the counter remedy in pharmacies. Although the antiinflammatory and analgesic effects of Traumeel® S have been demonstrated in selected clinical trials as well as in in vitro experimental models, little is known of its scientific mechanisms of action. Aim: The aim of this study was to establish whether administration of Traumeel® S five days before and three days after a 90-minute downhill treadmill run at 75% V02 peak significantly changes systemic markers of the inflammatory response. These are to include blood-borne concentrations of Cortisol and examples of selected T-helperrcell cytokines, T-helper2-cell cytokines, chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines during the three days following the 90-minute downhill run. Method: This study was designed as a double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial in which matched subjects were randomised to Traumeel (TRAU) and Placebo (PLAC) pairs and exposed to two 90-minute downhill running trials. Twenty subjects (12 men, 8 women) aged between 20 and 50 years, fully complied with all inclusion criteria set for the study. Following baseline laboratory and field testing, they were matched according to gender, body mass index (BMI), training age, training status, peak running performance and foot-strike patterns and randomized into TRAU and PLAC groups. One Traumeel® S tablet was ingested three times per day for five days prior to and three days following a 90-minute downhill run on a treadmill at a -6% gradient and at a speed eliciting 75% V02 peak on a level gradient. Blood samples were obtained immediately before the 90-minute trial (PRE), immediately after the trial (IPE) and 24 hours (24 PE), 48 hours (48 PE) and 72 hours (72 PE) following the trial. Each subject was also requested to complete a training record prior to the trial and keep a record of the daily symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) both at rest (general pain) and while walking (daily living). Full blood counts, serum creatine kinase (CK) and Cortisol concentrations were determined using standard haematological laboratory procedures. A sandwich ELISA was used to determine plasma interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentrations. A commercial bead-array kit was used to conduct flow cytometric analysis of Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Interleukin-10 (IL-10), Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha (TNFa), and Interleukin-12p70 (IL-12p70) concentrations. Results: Paired student Mests indicate that the mean ± SEM of the two groups was not significantly different (p < 0.05) in terms of age, BMI, percentage body fat, training age, foot strike patterns, running performance, FVC, FEV1; baseline heart rate and blood pressure, RERmax, V02 peak, VEmax, or training status. Although the TRAU group completed the 90-minute downhill running trial at a significantly faster speed (13.3 ± 2.1 vs. 12.8 ±0.3 km.hr; p = 0.02) and covered a greater distance (20.1 ± 0.3 vs. 19.34 ± 0.4; p = 0.03), mean and maximum heart rate and RPE did not differ between trials in the TRAU and PLAC groups. The downhill running protocol resulted in significant increases in neutrophil counts and creatine kinase, Cortisol, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 concentrations in the circulation (n = 20; p < 0.001). When comparing the TRAU (n = 10) and PLAC (n = 10) groups, blood neutrophil counts, creatine kinase, Cortisol, and IL-6 concentrations over the 5 time points and PRE, IPE and 24 PE plasma TNF, IL-8, EL-10 and EL-12p70 concentrations did not differ significantly (p > 0.05). Blood creatine kinase was, however, significantly higher in the TRAU group at 24PE (p < 0.05). The post-trial DOMS scores reported by the TRAU group over the 3-day post-exercise recovery period were also significantly lower in the TRAU group at 24PE (p = 0.03). Conclusion: Despite a faster running speed and higher post trial CK concentration in the TRAU group following the 90-minute downhill run, statistically significant differences in circulating stress hormone, and cytokine concentrations (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNFa and IL-12p70) between the TRAU and PLAC groups, were not identified. Delayed onset muscle soreness was also significantly lower in the TRAU group at 24 hours post trial (p = 0.03). While these findings would support attenuation of the post-exercise inflammatory response by Traumeel® S, further work is required to verify this possibility. / Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2008.

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Recent research has highlighted the potential importance of collective efficacy in enhancing understanding of group productivity within both mainstream and sport psychology, The aim of this thesis was, within a sport and physical activity setting, to progress beyond examining the collective efficacy - performance relationship and to focus upon examining the mechanisms through which Bandura (1982,1986,1997) predicts collective efficacy influences performance. Consistent with Bandura's proposals it was predicted that collective efficacy beliefs would influence group activity choice, goal selection, effort allocation, persistence levels, affective (including competitive state anxiety) reactions and team-referent attributions. A further research aim was to examine potential sources of collective efficacy. Thus, the role of team performance experiences and the attributions to these experiences as determinants of collective efficacy beliefs were examined. To achieve these aims five studies, three experimental studies and two field based surveys, were conducted. The experimental studies provided support for the prediction that an individual's collective efficacy beliefs are important determinants of that individual's stated choice of activity for their group, the goals they advocate that their group adopts, and the effort they allocate to the group task. Partial support for Weldon and Weingart's (1993) proposed relationship between collective efficacy and group goal commitment was also observed. However, no support was found for the predicted differences in persistence between individuals high and low in collective efficacy. The second and third of these studies indicated that performance information was an important source of collective efficacy. The field based surveys also provided support for aspects of Bandura's model of collective efficacy. The first of these indicated the existence of a small, negative relationship between an individual's collective efficacy beliefs and the level of cognitive anxiety experienced prior to competition and a moderate, positive relationship between an individual's collective efficacy beliefs and the level of positive affect experienced prior to competition. The second of the survey studies indicated that individuals with high collective efficacy used more controllable attributions than did those with low collective efficacy. Furthermore individuals' collective efficacy beliefs were observed to influence the team-referent attributions made after perceived success and failure of the team's performance. Specifically following perceived poor performances, high collective efficacy individuals used more external and unstable attributions than did those low in collective efficacy, whilst following good performances high collective efficacy individuals used more internal and stable attributions. This study also provided support for the role of controllable team-referent attributions in mediating the influence of performance attainments on collective efficacy beliefs with the use of controllable attributions leading to increases in collective efficacy following success and failure. Overall the research conducted provides support for a number of the mechanisms through which it is proposed that collective efficacy operates on performance, and for the role of performance attainments and team-referent attributions in determining collective efficacy. It also provides further evidence for the importance of collective efficacy to the understanding of group productivity and individuals who constitute groups.

Attempts have been made to account for the increased propensity of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in regularly training individuals, by focusing on the effect of exercise on the primary mucosal immunoglobulin secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA). However, the pathophysiological significance of observed changes in sIgA levels remains unclear, as indeed does the existence of increased URTI in athletes. The aim of this work was to examine the use of sIgA as a marker of exercise-induced immunomodulation and its possible role in protection against URTI. Before these questions could be addressed the optimum method for saliva collection, and the ideal terms for expression of sIgA levels were investigated. Experimental data advocate the use of the passive dribbling method above the use of salivettes. Salivettes were found to result in an underestimation of both saliva flow rate and protein concentrations as a consequence of limited absorption (3 ± 1ml) and variable retention of the sample (49.1 ± 24.9%). Secretory IgA levels are commonly expressed in terms of secretion rate which is the product of saliva flow rate and sIgA concentration. Examination of the relative contribution of these two factors to secretion rate revealed that exercise-induced changes in saliva flow rate (-51 %) matched the changes in secretion rate (-51 %), whereas changes in sIgA concentrations (+4%) did not. It was concluded that changes in saliva flow rates have an important role with the occurrence of symptoms associated with URTI whether induced by infective or inflammatory factors. Epidemiological data from others on the incidence of symptoms associated with URTI in marathon runners have provided evidence on the incidence of URTI in athletes. However here, reported symptoms associated with URTI were most common during the race suggesting that an infective agent was not involved. Examination of the effect of marathon running revealed a non-significant decrease in saliva flow rate (-27.7 ± 15.8%). A final study investigated the effect of increased ambient temperature, and the possibility of fluid replacement as a intervention strategy against exercise-induced decreases in saliva flow rate. This study revealed that exercise reduced saliva flow rate exercise in the heat exacerbated this and that fluid replacement tempered the exercise-induced decrease. Changes in saliva flow rate were found to be associated with changes in plasma volume. The overall conclusions of this thesis are that innate defence mechanisms such as saliva have a role to play in conferring defence against potential pathogens, and therefore warrant further investigation. It appears from data presented in this thesis that saliva flow rate is affected by exercise, perhaps to a greater extent than sIgA concentration. Changes in saliva flow rate with exercise may have a role to play in the purported increased incidence of URTI reported by athletes, and fluid replacement may provide an effective strategy against this exercise-induced decrease.

There is a lack of scientific research into roller hockey. The aim of this thesis was to analyse the muscular demands of roller hockey match play, using four techniques. These were a) Match analysis: Two Premier League roller hockey matches were recorded using two stationary video cameras. Manual, field-by-field analysis established all the actions performed by players in a match situation, the percentage of match time spent performing each action, their frequency and the mean duration of each action. Also recorded was the direction travelled, while the intensity of each action was subjectively assessed. b) Heart rate analysis (n=5): heart rate was recorded every 5 s during training and competition. Heart rate and performance were also measured during a maximal progressive 20-m shuttle skate test and oxygen consumption (V02) was calculated. c) Kinesiology analysis (n=l): Two-dimensional video analysis was used to establish the phases, joint actions, and muscular activity of each roller hockey action. d) Telemetric surface electromyography (EMG) analysis (n=6): activity was monitored in 8 muscles during training practice and training matches. The results of the match analysis showed 71% of match play was spent rolling, and 70% was spent travelling forwards; 22% was conducted at high intensity. Minor differences were found in match play activity between forwards and defenders, and between winners and losers. Comparisons between activity in the 1st and 2nd halves showed significantly more sprinting in the 1st half (p<0.05) and significantly more rolling and low intensity activity in the 2nd half (p<0.05). Mean heart rates during competitive matches (176 beats/min) were significantly higher (p<0.05) than during training matches (166 beats/min). The maximal 20-m shuttle skate test produced a mean predicted V02max, of 54 ml/kg/min, and maximal heart rates similar to competitive matches. The kinesiology analysis established 8 muscles central in roller hockey; these muscles were monitored in the EMG analysis. Electromyography revealed that performance of roller hockey actions during training produced the greatest EMG activity in the pectoralis major, while sprinting and forehand slap shots were the most demanding actions. Combining the results of the electromyography analysis with the match analysis revealed the high physical demands of shooting and the skating actions of pushing and sprinting. This thesis constituted the first long-term study of roller hockey, and it provided evidence that may be used in developing technique and improving sport specific fitness.

The role of adenine nucleotide metabolism is central to the electro-mechanical processes in muscular contraction. Interventions which alter the cellular micro-environment can impact on the fatigue response during exercise possibly mediated by the balance between ATP and ADP. This thesis examined the response of biochemical and physiological markers of muscle fatigue in dietary interventions aimed to alter the cellular environment. Contractile measures included force and relaxation times from contractions of the knee extensors, whilst biochemical markers included anunonia and lactate after voluntary isometric and incremental cycle exercise. Evoked contractile measurements afforded experimental objectivity independent of voluntary intervention whilst the voluntary measures afforded greater transferability. In Chapter 3 the relaxation time response to a train of evoked fatiguing contractions varied depending on the choice of relaxation method (upper exponential, lower exponential, 60-40 exponential, 100-75,95-45,75-37.5,75-25%). Methods describing the earlier portions of the relaxation curve slowed less during fatigue than those comprising the latter portions. Intra-session variability ranged from 1.3 to 5.02% and inter-session variation ranged from 2.85 to 6.97% dependent upon the adopted relaxation method. Such variability was comparable with other laboratories demonstrating significant intervention-induced changes. This has implications for future studies in the choice of relaxation method and magnitude of change necessary for identification of intervention-induced changes. In chapter 4 the magnitudes of change in MVC and time to fatigue in a voluntary isometric contraction between creatine and placebo supplementation were -3% and 2% respectively. The fatigue-induced slowing of evoked relaxation times was greater by -4% and these changes were not significant. The differences in markers of adenine nucleotide degradation after creatine and placebo supplementation were also insignificant. In chapter 5 the creatine supplementation-induced change in the decline in evoked force during a fatiguing train was -1 % but was insignificant. For the voluntary and evoked relaxation times, in chapter 5, the magnitude of changes between placebo and creatine supplementation were <1 %, and insignificant. The ingestion of NaHCO, accelerated the loss of evoked force during a fatiguing train, with a trend towards shorter relaxation times that was only evident in the 100-75% method. Bicarbonate ingestion resulted in higher plasma lactate but had minimal effect on markers of adenine nucleotide degradation. The rate of evoked force loss was greater when muscle glycogen stores were reduced by exercise and low CHO diet and this trend was reversed by additionally supplementing with creatine, but this was not associated with similar trends in markers of nucleotide degradation during incremental cycling. A novel finding of this study was that reducing muscle glycogen resulted in a more severe slowing of relaxation times that was reversed when combined with creatine supplementation. In this thesis the changes in the biochemical markers of ADP homeostasis (NH,) by dietary interventions were insignificant. However, the force and relaxation time responses may highlight the functional importance of maintaining ADP homeostasis. The fatigue-induced slowing of evoked relaxation times was different depending on the chosen method. Despite a smaller relative slowing during fatigue the 100-75% method appeared to be most sensitive to dietary interventions.

The primary aim of the present thesis was to gain an insight into the usefulness and potential impacts of producing individual athlete performance profiles within a group environment (Butler & Hardy, 1992). Given the limited, and mainly descriptive, profiling literature, a strong two-stage research design, adhering to many of Denzin's (1978) triangulation principles, examined the perceptions of the two primary user populations (sport psychologist and athlete). Firstly British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) accredited sport psychologists (n=6) were interviewed to provide an in depth understanding of the usefulness and impact of the technique. Higher order themes, obtained via an inductive content analysis of the interviews, were combined with a review of the literature to produce a quantitative questionnaire examining the perceptions of a large number of BASES accredited consultants (n=56). An investigation of athlete perceptions regarding the impact of the technique firstly involved employing the group performance profiling procedure (Butler & Hardy, 1992) on a male collegiate rugby union squad. Following the profiling session players (n=8) were randomly chosen and interviewed regarding their perceptions of the usefulness and impact of the technique. An inductive content analysis of the interviews produced a number of higher order themes that were combined with a review of the profiling literature to produce a quantitative questionnaire. Following the successful piloting of the questionnaire ten group performance profiling sessions were performed with a variety of sports teams. On completion of the profiling sessions athletes (n=191) were asked to complete the questionnaire to help ascertain what athletes perceived to be the most important impacts of performance profiling within a group environment. Inspection of both the consultant and athlete responses to the qualitative and quantitative procedures indicated that group profiling is useful in increasing athlete self awareness, evaluating performance, as a basis for goal setting, and enhancing communication and interaction both within teams and between athlete and coach. In addition, both consultants and athletes believed that performance profiling within a group environment would help to improve athlete intrinsic motivation. Hence the final study examined experimentally the impact of repeated group performance profiling on athletes' intrinsic motivation. Results showed that profiling on three occasions within a competitive season is useful in significantly improving athlete intrinsic motivation. The findings provide empirical support for Butler and Hardy's (1992) suggestion that performance profiling would positively influence athlete intrinsic motivation.

Theoretical models of person perception (e.g., the Schematic Model of Person Perception, Warr & Knapper, 1968) have conceptualised the range of stimuli a perceiver will use to form an impression of a target and their subsequent responses to these stimuli. The main aim of this thesis was to examine person perception in sports interactions. Specifically, the aims were to examine a) the stimuli sports performers attend to b) the attributive, expectancy and affective responses sports performers develop to initial impressions c) the influence of initial impressions on attributions for an opponent's performance and d) the influence of initial impressions on a performer's attention and competitive sports performance. Study one of this thesis presents qualitative research highlighting the range of stimuli available to tennis performers, common attributive responses and reported impacts of an impression on a performer's state, expectations and performance. Study two provides empirical support for the suggestion that performers experience attributive and expectancy responses to their opponents' body language. Specifically, when a potential opponent displayed positive body language, participants rated both episodic and dispositional judgements significantly more positively than when negative body language was displayed. When the potential opponent's body language was positive participants' expectations of the opponent's performance, their own performance and the demands of a match were rated as significantly greater than when negative body language was displayed. When the potential opponent's body language was positive participants' expectations for the overall outcome of a match were rated significantly lower than when negative body language was displayed. Study three shows that, despite performance specific stimuli becoming available later in the interaction, an initial impression influences how an opponent's performance is judged. Specifically, when a potential opponent displayed positive body language his technique, power and movement were rated significantly higher than when negative body language was displayed. Study three also highlights how person perception can influence how a performer's attributes his or her opponent's performance. Study three showed that when a potential opponent displayed positive body language a successful performance was attributed to greater levels of skill and when negative body language was displayed a successful performance was attributed to luck. Study four demonstrates that an opponent's prior performance record can prompt a significant affective response, with participants given stimuli showing their opponent had won all previous competitions reporting significantly greater levels of cognitive anxiety. Participants given stimuli showing their opponent had won all previous competitions of a golf putting game also showed a significant decrease in competition scores from a baseline measure, indicating that an initial impression of an opponent influenced the perceiver's performance of a fine motor skill. The opponent's prior performance was seen to influence the amount of time a performer spends attending to their opponent's stimuli, with participants given no prior performance information attending to their opponent's subsequent neutral stimuli for significantly longer durations than participants provided with prior performance stimuli. Overall the research presented in this thesis provides support for the use of the Schematic Model of Person Perception (Warr & Knapper, 1968) as a theoretical basis of investigation in sports-specific person perception research. Initial support is given to the proposal that person perception can be a significant factor in a performer's judgements of an opponent, expectations, affective state and attentional style prior to performing.

Established models of endurance performance (Costill et al. (1973) Med Sci Sports 5(4): 248-252 and Coyle (1995) Ex. Sport Sci. Rev. 23:25-63) are based on the athlete's ability to maintain a fixed %V02peak, normally within the severe intensity domain, e.g. 88 %V02peak (exercise intensity domains being defined as; rest-moderate-heavy-severe-V02peak; Whipp (1994) Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26(11): 1319-13-26). The V02 slow component (V02SC) concept (Gaesser and Poole, 1996, Ex. Sport Sci. Rev. 24:35-70), which is based on observations from a healthy/sedentary populations', states that V02 continually increases within the severe intensity domain, and therefore undermines the validity of the performance models. This thesis examined the V02SC in an endurance trained cyclist population. Within the models, V02peak sets the ceiling for endurance performance. Current V02SC theory suggests that V02p"k assessment is protocol independent, as V02 continually increases within the severe intensity domain. This thesis demonstrated that V02peak was protocol dependent for 3 ramp protocols (35, 20 and 5 W.min-'), the V02SC being unable to generate a V02peak response from the 5 W.min-' protocol even though the subjects worked within the severe intensity domain. The V02SC definition states that V02 is elevated above values predicted from moderate intensity exercise at heavy, and increases continually, at severe exercise intensities. The endurance trained subjects demonstrated elevated steady state V02 responses at exercise intensities up to their endurance performance V02. This was within the severe intensity domain, thus validating the performance models for this subject population. The V02SC response in endurance trained cyclists differed from that previously observed for a sedentary/healthy population, therefore the currently accepted cause, increased fast twitch (FT) muscle fibre recruitment, may be questioned. Evidence from EMG studies suggest that muscle recruitment patterns differ between muscles, with increasing intensity (Green and Patla (1992) Med. Sci. Sports Ex. 24(1): 38-46). The recruitment patterns of three muscles were examined during incremental exercise to establish changes in both the magnitude of activation, and potential changes in fibre type recruitment (via the median frequency response). The pattern of muscle recruitment varied between both subjects and muscles. Changes in the recruitment patterns of a number of individual muscles were coincidental with the initiation of the V02SC. No coincidence between muscle fibre type recruitment (assessed via the EMG median frequency response) and the V02SC in endurance trained cyclists was observed. Therefore the V02SC may be due to changes in muscle recruitment patterns as well as FT fibre recruitment. The results of this thesis suggest that current models of endurance performance are valid for the endurance trained cyclist population studied, and that the V02SC concept should be redefined for this population. The V02SC response observed may be due to changes in muscle recruitment patterns and an increase in the number of motor units recruited, as median frequency EMG measures did not support the hypothesis that the V02SC is principally caused by an increased recruitment of FT muscle fibres.

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