Attribution theory helps explain how people infer an actor's characteristics or dispositions from his or her behavior. In the context of advertising, the theory has been used to explain how consumers infer the motives, intent, or disposition of a persuasive communicator such as an advertiser or a celebrity endorser. Only recently has there been some effort to explain corporate sponsorship in light of attribution theory (Rifon, Choi, Trimble, & Li, 2004). However, none of these recent studies have investigated attribution in the commercial sport sponsorship context. The main thrust of the current study was to examine whether attribution theory is applicable to the context of sport sponsorship. Based on Kelley's (1967) co-variation principle, predictions were made concerning consumer response to single versus multiple team sponsorship. Further, the relationships between attribution, attitudes toward the sponsor, and purchase intent were investigated. The results from four pilot studies (n = 45; 31; 150; 170) demonstrated that experimental stimulus materials for the main study were properly manipulated and that the measurement tools for the current study, including two newly developed attribution scales, were psychometrically sound. The main study (n = 204) employed a posttest-only control group design in which consumer responses to multiple versus single team sponsorship were compared. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) demonstrated that a single team sponsor was perceived to be more team-serving whereas a multiple team sponsor was perceived to be more firm-serving. This supported the proposition that attribution theory is predictive of consumer response to a sport sponsor's actions and behavior. MANOVA also showed that sponsor favorability was significantly different across the treatment groups. No statistical difference was found in terms of purchase intent. Based on hedonic relevance theory, treatment (single-team versus multiple-team sponsorship) and covariate (team identification) interactions were hypothesized. The results were mixed. Attribute-Treatment Interaction (ATI) analysis revealed that the higher the level of team identification, the greater the magnitude of team-serving intent attribution. The level of firm-serving intent, however, did not differ across the levels of team identification. This non-significant finding might have resulted from a positivity bias toward the sponsor among the highly identified sport fans participating in the study. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that the hypothesized relationships between perception of team-serving intent, sponsor favorability, and purchase likelihood were significant. The effect of perception of team-serving intent on purchase intent was found to be indirect. Perception of firm-serving intent was found to be significantly associated neither with sponsor favorability nor with purchase intent. These results suggested that consumers are likely to respond positively to a sponsor perceived to be team-serving. They are, however, neutral about a sponsor perceived to be firm-serving. This study is believed to be the first to examine attribution in the context of commercial sport sponsorship. It expands the applicability of attribution theory to a new setting. This study also contributes to sponsorship research by providing a theoretical framework that explains the process of goodwill generation and identifies the determinants and consequences of goodwill. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2010. / August 16, 2010. / Attribution, Sponsorship / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeannine Turner, University Representative; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

It is not uncommon for a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I school to have an athletic apparel contract (AAC) with an established athletic apparel company. These relationships have evolved over time to the point that the AACs seem to have become institutionalized in collegiate athletics. Institutionalization refers to the repetition of organizational arrangements (Washington & Patterson, 2009) to the point that it exists as a 'norm' within a culture. While there are certain benefits to these contracts, there are also associated risks. AACs often include clauses requiring every student-athlete at the school to wear brand name apparel for practice and competition, regardless of satisfaction with the product. Considering volleyball is typically a non-revenue generating sport at many NCAA Division I schools, student-athletes are often required to wear a certain type of shoe due to contract restrictions. Problems may arise if the sponsored shoes do not meet the needs, specifically the health and safety needs, of the student-athlete. Coaches are often involved in the selection of the teams' shoes, while athletic trainers must manage any medical consequences resulting from ill-fitting shoes. Given the notion that AACs have been institutionalized in the collegiate athletic setting, including restricted shoe selection, this study was conducted to gain insight into the factors influencing volleyball shoe selection. The study was qualitative and involved semi-structured interviews with 11 volleyball coaches and athletic trainers in the Southeastern and Atlantic Coast athletic conferences. For purposes of data analysis, the researcher utilized the four dialogic moments as described by Markula and Silk (2011): recalling, listening around, close reading, and representing self and others. Results were presented according to coaches and athletic trainers, separately. Factors identified by coaches were the evidence of dissatisfaction, general benefits of a school's AAC, insufficient volleyball shoe options from sponsors, and medical concerns. Factors identified by athletic trainers included medical concerns, general benefits of a school's AAC, and insufficient volleyball shoe options from the sponsor. In general, results of this study supported the notion that AACs have become institutionalized in select NCAA Division I volleyball programs through the development of volleyball teams being a dependent beneficiary from their school's AAC. While the sponsored brands met participants' expectations in regard to the quantity of volleyball shoes provided, the sponsored brands did not meet participants' expectations regarding quality. Overall, participants were willing to overlook these negative concerns for the benefit of their athletic department as a whole. The subject matter adds value to the sport management profession by providing sport managers, Division I schools, and athletic apparel sponsors a perspective on the sponsor-school relationship as it pertains to athletic apparel contracts, but further research into other sports' shoe selection processes, as well as the student-athletes' and sponsored brands' perception of the effect of an AAC is needed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 25, 2014. / Athletic trainer, Coach, Division I, Institutionalization, Volleyball / Includes bibliographical references. / Janelle E. Wells, Professor Directing Thesis; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member; B. Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

This dissertation provides an exploration into the intricate relationship between the emotional volatility extant during spectator sport consumption and consumer memory for marketing stimuli. Emotional activity is measured across two dimensions (i.e., emotional arousal and valence), and an experimental methodology is implemented that allows for the competition of several theoretical predictions deriving from a variety of domains pertaining to the effect of volatility within each dimension upon consumer memory. Regarding the arousal-memory interaction, these predictions include (1) the arousal enhancement hypothesis, which predicts a comprehensive improvement in memory due to the presence of emotional arousal, (2) the cognitive resource allocation model, which predicts a comprehensive decline in memory due to the presence of emotional arousal, (3) the peripheral neglect hypothesis, which predicts the enhancement of memory for temporally, conceptually, and spatially central information and impairment of memory for peripheral information due to the presence of emotional arousal, and (4) state dependent memory, which refers to the phenomenon that memory relies upon a consistency in psychological contexts across encoding and retrieval. Regarding the valence-memory interaction, three predictions were tested: (1) positive valence effect, which refers to the prediction that emotional valence is positively related to probability of recall, (2) selectivity for valenced stimuli, which refers to the tendency to selectively encode/retrieve information with a non-neutral affective tone, and (3) state-dependent encoding, which refers to the tendency to selectively encode information with an affective tone that is congruent with one's current emotional valence state. This research provides support for a state-dependent view of the emotion-memory relationship. Recall patterns also approximated those predicted by the peripheral neglect hypothesis. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are provided / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 26, 2014. / Advertising, Consumer Behavior, Emotion, Memory, Sponsorship, Sports Marketing / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeffery Smith, University Representative; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member; J. Joseph Cronin, Jr., Committee Member.

Dynamic pricing has become one of the most popular pricing strategies of developed online shopping environments and provides efficiency for both providers and consumers in the service industry. Spectator sport providers have recently adopted dynamic ticket pricing (DTP), which is a type of dynamic pricing and discriminated prices, as a result of DTP, may lead to perceptions of unfairness, especially during the early stages of its adoption. The aim of the current research was to develop a conceptual framework based on relevant consumer psychology theories, including distributive and procedural justice, equity, and social comparison theories, in order to empirically investigate the formation and influence of perceptions of price fairness. Four categories of questions corresponding to a given scenario were employed via a questionnaire to collect data: predictors of price fairness, perceptions of price fairness, behavioral intentions, and demographic sections. Participants who define themselves as current or potential sports consumers were selected using a convenient sampling method in a face-to-face mode. After verifying the items using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to examine: (1) the influence of predictors of price fairness (i.e., magnitude and temporal proximity price difference, perceived nonmonetary sacrifice, and price setter fairness) on perceptions of price fairness; (2) differences in degrees of influence on perceptions of price fairness between the two groups of price fairness predictors (i.e., similar other-reference and self-reference group) depending on comparison targets; and (3) the influence of perceptions of price fairness on behavioral intentions. Using SEM the hypotheses were tested. First, magnitude of price difference was strongly and negatively associated with perception of price fairness, while temporal proximity positively influence the fairness perception. Also, price setter fairness was positively consistent with perception of price fairness. Furthermore, it was found that created perception of price fairness was negatively correlated with self-protection and revenge intentions, although the fairness perception positively effects repurchase intentions. The current research was expected to contribute to the soft landing of DTP in the spectator sport industry by providing critical information of factors determining price fairness judgment, and the effects of perceptions of price fairness on behavioral intentions for better understanding of DTP for both researchers and practitioners. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2014. / July 1, 2014. / Dynamic Pricing, Dynamic Ticket Pricing, Perceptions of Price Fairness, Price Fairness / Includes bibliographical references. / Yu Kyoum Kim, Professor Directing Thesis; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Ryan Rodenberg, Committee Member.

ABSTRACT Since the year 2000, the number of golfers in the United States has steadily declined (National Golf Foundations, 2013). Coupled with an oversupply of golf courses and a sluggish real estate market, this drop has contributed to a cessation in domestic golf course development. This same failed model that incorporates golf courses as amenities to sell real estate is being reproduced in developing countries searching for an economic panacea. Golf courses are being developed in emerging nations for the primary purpose of financial reward, with minimal regard for environmental or social sustainability (Wheeler & Nauright, 2006). The public is often led to believe that golf course development will create employment opportunities for the community, bring boundless fiscal returns in the form of tax revenues and increased tourism, and attract additional small businesses to the region (Lim & Patterson, 2008). During my visits to Panama, I saw the beginnings of this unsustainable practice of golf course development being touted as an economic cure-all, all possible because of President Martinelli's free-market policies encouraging foreign development through free-trade agreements, relocation tax incentives, and limited restrictions on foreign capital. Panama is an emerging country. Under current President Martinelli's tenure, Panama's poverty rate dropped from 33% to 26%, its unemployment rate declined from 12% to 4.4%, its literacy rate is 95%, while its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) index to debt ratio is 39.2% (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). The country is currently expanding the Panama Canal (more than doubling its earning capacity), building a metro system in the capital city, and constructing an airport in the country's interior to provide tourists with convenient access to the new beachfront golf resorts and housing projects developed over the past ten years. The Club de Panama hosts the Buy.com Tour's first golf event of the season, positioning Panama as the golf xiv mecca of Central America. The political environment is primed for golf course development in Panama, foreign investors are being incentivized to relocate, and American golf companies have already established their presence. As I examined the economic, environmental, and social sustainability of golf course development in Panama and its effects on key stakeholders, the information I gathered via ethnography strongly points towards the Panamanian government's neo-liberal initiatives as a significant contributor to the growth of golf course development. Additionally, the results of the study lead me to the conclusion that stakeholders affected by golf course development do not benefit or suffer equally, as suggested by Orridge (1981) and Marsden (1995). The current U.S. model of utilizing golf courses as an amenity to sell real estate is not sustainable; in fact, none of the ownership models discussed in the literature are in themselves sufficient to ensure equal benefit to all primary stakeholders. In summary, golf continues to be a sport synonymous with capitalist societies; however, without the introduction of a more balanced alternative to golf course development and operations, many key stakeholders in Panama may be at risk should these facilities fail to provide their investors an adequate profit. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 17, 2014. / Golf, Panama, Political Economy, Sustainability / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael D. Giardina, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald R. Ferris, University Representative; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member.

<p>[missing page 82]</p> / <p>Six males (M, 21.2 ± 1.2 y) and 6 females (F, 20.3 ± .8 y) trained, by random assignment, the elbow flexors of one arm on an isokinetic device (ID, Hydra-Gym, Belton,T exas) and the other arm on weight device (WD, Rubicon Ind., Stoney Creek, Ont.). Training consisted of 5 sets of 10 maximal effort repetitions at the slowest velocity on the ID and 5 sets of 8-12 repetitions maximum on the WD, 3 times per week for 20 weeks.0</p> <p>Needle biopsy samples were obtained from biceps brachii before and after training and analysed for fibre type distribution and fibre area. CT scans were taken of the upper arm and analysed for bicep, brachialis and total flexor cross-sectional area. Strength measurements on both arms were taken at 2 week intervals through the training period on the ID (3 velocities) and the WD (1RM) as well as a Cybex dynamometer (@ 30, 120, 180, 240 °/s) and isometric dynamometer (ISD) (@ 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, 150, 165°). Contractile properties were obtained from isometric twitch measurements and analysed for peak torque (PT), time to peak torque (TPT), 1/2 relaxation time (1/2 RT), Maximum rate of torque development (MRTD) and maximum rate of torque relaxation ( MRTR).</p> <p>Fibre areas showed no change in absolute values (um ²) however relative fibre area increased (+12.1%, p<.07), the change being most evident in the Type II fibres (+20.8%, p<.06). Bicep area increased 9% following training. Brachialis area increased in absolute and relative (41%) terms with the largest increase in M and F trained on the WD (p<.05). Total flexor area increased significantly with no differences between gender or training mode. Cybex peak torque increased significantly in F (14.1%) but not in M after training. Strength measured on the WD and ID increased significantly in all conditions. WD and ID training produced similar increases in strength measured on the ID. Strength measured on the WD increased more with WD (102.9%) than ID (58.6%) training. M made greater absolute increases in strength on the WD (88.0 vs 69.8 N) and the 10 (266.2 vs 236.8 N) than F, whereas F made greater relative strength increases on the ID (99.3 vs 44.3%), WO (116.0 vs 45.5%) and ISO (22.5 vs 6.5%) than M. PT increased at 14 weeks and remained elevated to some extent, post training. MRTO and MRTR followed the pattern of PT. No change was observed in TPT or 1/2 RT with training. It was concluded that: (1) WD training causes greater gains in training specific strength; (2) M make greater absolute but smaller relative increases in strength than F; (3) WD training is more effective in increasing muscle size than 10 training; (4) F can make comparable absolute gains in muscle mass to M; (5) PT increased with training, in part because of increased muscle mass; (6) Training of this intensity and duration does not affect the time-related contractile characteristics of human muscle.</p> / Master of Science (MS)

The human body endures stress on a daily basis, with many occupational and recreational activities beset with such challenges to homeostasis. These challenges include that of exercise and exposure to challenging environments (hypoxia and hyperbaria). A group of specialised proteins, termed heat shock proteins (HSP) provide protection to such stressors at a cellular level. This cellular defence mechanism protects and oversees whole body protein homeostasis, which is vital to all cellular processes. One such protective HSP, is HSP72, which is present in almost all cellular compartments and has received extensive and widespread research interest – with elevations in HSP72 indicatively linked to augmented cellular and whole body resistance to various exercise and environmental stressors. Despite this extensive research interest, several fundamental areas of concern with regard to HSP72 have not been satisfactorily addressed or delineated. In general, the experimental chapters of this thesis were designed to investigate several broad research questions related to those areas that have not been sufficiently addressed, as highlighted by the Literature Review. These areas include the reliance on thermal and/or mechanical stress to induce elevations in HSP72, both in vitro and in vivo, to initiate conveyed cellular protection. No in vivo attempts have been made to use a non-thermal and/or non-mechanical based stimulus, such as a hypoxic or hyperbaric exposure, to induce elevations in basal HSP72 in an attempt to confer cellular tolerance to future episodes of stress. Additionally, any potential relationships between changes in redox balance and stress induced changes in HSP72 expression have not been investigated in vivo, this potential interplay could be important when discussing any likely mechanisms for HSP72 dependent conferred cellular tolerance. In order to investigate such hypoxic or hyperbaric mediated changes in basal HSP72 expression securely, basal expression of monocyte expressed HSP72 (mHSP72) warrants investigation (diurnal and/or circadian variation), as, at present, this has not be conducted securely or adequately. The first experimental chapter investigated basal expression of mHSP72 over a 24 h period. Seventeen recreationally active (mean ± SD: 5.9±2.2 h∙wk-1) male subjects (19.8±4.3 yr, 177±6.4 cm, 75.7±10.9 kg) had blood samples taken every 4 h from 0900 until 0900 the next day, at rest, within a temperature regulated laboratory. Core temperature, as assessed by ingestible telemetric temperature sensor pill, was obtained at 5 min intervals. Basal mHSP72 expression was found to follow a circadian rhythm, which was correlated to core temperature (rs=0.41, p<0.001). Notably, during “waking” hours (0900 – 2100), this circadian rhythm was shown to follow a quadratic trend in expression (F = 21.2, p < 0.001). The second experimental chapter investigated the repeatability of the quadratic trend in basal mHSP72 expression demonstrated within the previous experimental chapter. Twelve healthy recreationally active (mean ± SD: 5.2±1.9 h∙wk-1) male subjects (20.2±1.9 yr, 178.7±5.6 cm, 75.1±6.0 kg) had blood samples taken on three separate days (separated by three days) over a 9 h period (0800, 1100, 1400) at rest within a temperature regulated laboratory. Results supported those from the previous chapter, whereby, the quadratic trend in basal mHSP72 expression was evident on three separate days (F = 26.0; p = 0.001; partial η2 = 0.74), where mHSP72 decreased between 0800 and 1100 (mean difference = -17%; 95% CI = -24%, -10%; p < 0.001) and then increased between 1100 and 1400 (mean difference = 8%; 95% CI = 2%, 14%; p = 0.015). In conjunction with the first experimental chapter, these results demonstrate the importance in controlling the time of day interventions are administered in vivo, as differential responses may be seen due to differences in basal HSP72 expression. Furthermore, when regular blood samples are required post intervention, the timetabling of such collections needs to be stringently adhered to, due to within-day variation in basal mHSP72. Differing basal values of mHSP72 are known to determine the magnitude of post stressor mHSP72 expression and thus any variation (even minimal) in basal mHSP72 is important. The third experimental chapter investigated the potential of an environmental stressor to disrupt the quadratic trend in basal mHSP72 and explored whether any such changes in mHSP72 may have a relationship with alterations in redox balance. Six healthy recreationally active (mean ± SD: 5.9±2.3 h.wk-1) male subjects (mean ± SD: 21.3±7.2 yr, 179.2±4.8 cm, 79.3±9.9 kg) participated within the study. Control values (NA) for mHSP72 were obtained one week before the first hyperbaric air (HA) exposure with the hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) exposure following a week later (i.e. 3 study days NA, HA and HBO each separated by one week). These exposures commenced at 1500 and involved a simulated dive consisting of HA (2.8 ATA) or HBO (20 min O2, 5 min HA cycle) within a hyperbaric chamber constituting 78 min bottom time. Within each study day blood samples were taken at 0900, 1300, 1700 and 2100. The administration of HBO and HA were sufficient to disrupt the quadratic trend shown within the NA condition (F = 27.6, p < 0.001). The model demonstrated significant main effects for condition (F = 24.7, p < 0.001) and time (F = 9.6, p < 0.001), and a condition x time interaction effect was also observed (F = 7.1, p < 0.001). Decomposition of this interaction effect revealed a reduction in mHSP72 was evident post hyperbaric exposures, whereby, mHSP72 expression at 1700 was significantly higher in NA than in HA (p = 0.016) and HBO (p < 0.001), this reduction was still evident in both HA and HBO compared to NA at 2100 (p < 0.001). In addition to quantification of mHSP72, a measure of oxidative stress, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (plasma TBARS), was also retrospectively assessed from the isolated plasma of these blood samples. There were no significant main effects observed for condition (F = 0.7; p = 0.50) or time (F = 0.06; p = 0.81), and no significant condition x time interaction effect (F = 0.5; p = 0.62) for plasma TBARS. Despite the failure of the hyperbaric environments to elicit increases in basal mHSP72, one important physiological contribution may be contrived of this reduction in mHSP72, as in vitro and in vivo low basal mHSP72 content is indicatively correlated to enhanced post stressor HSP72 expression. Such hyperbaric mediated reductions in basal content may allow enhanced HSP72 expression post stressor, an intervention which may be of benefit to hyperthermic exercise acclimation protocols which seek elevated mHSP72 as part of the in vivo heat acclimation process. The fourth experimental chapter employed an acute hypoxic exposure (75 min, 2980 m) at rest in an attempt to disrupt the previously demonstrated quadratic trend in basal mHSP72 expression and explored whether any such changes in mHSP72 may have a relationship with alterations in redox balance. Twelve healthy recreationally active (mean ± SD: 5.1±1.5 h.wk-1) male subjects (19.8±3.5 yr, 175.5±10.8 cm, 73.1±8.0 kg) participated in the study. Testing was conducted on consecutive days, with all subjects providing control samples on this first day with the hypoxic exposure administered on the second day. This exposure commenced and ceased at 0930 and 1045 respectively. Blood samples were taken at 0800, 1100, 1400, 1700 and 2000. In addition to quantification of mHSP72 a measure of oxidative stress, plasma TBARS, was also retrospectively assessed from the isolated plasma of these blood samples. There was a significant quadratic trend in mHSP72 for the control condition (F = 23.5; p = 0.002; partial η2 = 0.77) with no such trend evident for the hypoxic condition (largest F ratio was for a quadratic trend: F = 3.9; p = 0.087).

Inability to cope with stress in sport has been associated with sport withdrawal (Klint & Weis, 1986; Smith, 1986), decreased performance (Lazarus, 2000), and athletes not being able to pursue careers in professional sport (Holt & Dunn, 2004). It is therefore crucial to both researchers and practitioners working with athletes to have a greater understanding of coping in sport in order to design effective interventions and to make sport a more satisfying experience (Nicholls & Polman, 2007a). Since the 1990s there has been an increase in published studies in coping in sport. However, the understanding of factors which might influence coping in sport is still unclear and under researched. For example, gender appears to be a moderator variable influencing the stress and coping process. Nevertheless the relationship between gender and coping in sport appears to be equivocal. Some studies have reported gender differences in coping preferences (e.g., Hammermeister & Burton, 2004; Nicholls, Polman, Levy, Taylor, & Cobley, 2007) whereas other studies did not find differences between male and female athletes in coping preferences (e.g., Bebetsos & Antoniou, 2003; Kowalski, Crocker, Hoar & Niefer, 2005). Also, as suggested by the mainstream psychology literature, personality has been considered to be a moderator factor that could influence each aspect of the stress-coping process. However, little is known about this relationship between personality and coping in sport. This is true for the basic dimensions of personality (The Big Five) and the sport specific personality trait mental toughness. An understanding about male and female coping preferences is essential from both an applied and theoretical perspective. For example, it would allow practitioners to develop gender specific programmes for males and females to cope more effectively with stress. Also, further knowledge into the relationship between personality and coping is required, in order to design effective intervention programmes that fit individual needs.

The aims of this thesis were to examine the relationships between relative age, maturity status, and physical phenotypes on the selection, playing position allocation, and development tempo of a broad sample of elite youth soccer players’ that best represents UK development programs governed by the Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP). The first research study (Chapter 4) aimed to establish the short-term reliability (STR) and smallest worthwhile changes (SWC) for a battery of field tests commonly used to assess elite youth soccer players’ physical and somatic phenotypes. On two occasions, the within-practitioner STR of three anthropometric measures (stature, seated height and body-mass) were assessed to estimate age at peak height velocity (APHV). In addition, within-player STR of the Multi-Stage Fitness Test (MSFT), 10 and 20 m sprints were assessed using 45 elite youth soccer players (age: 13.5 ± 1.5 years; body-mass: 49.2 ± 10.3 kg; stature: 177.7 ± 6.4 cm). In addition, within-player STR was established for T-Test and counter-movement jump (CMJ) performance using 21 senior amateur soccer players (age: 24 ± 5.3 years; body-mass: 84.3 ± 7.1 kg; stature: 177.7 ± 6.4 cm). The within-practitioner STR (coefficient of variance [CV], (95% confidence interval [CI])) and SWC were established for anthropometric measures (stature: CV = 0.4 % [CI = 0.3 to 0.5 %], SWC = 2.3 cm; seated height: CV = 1.1 % [0.9 to 1.4 %], SWC = 1.1 cm; body-mass: CV = 0.7 % [0.6 to 0.9 %], SWC = 2.3 kg) and APHV (CV = 0.8 % [0.7 to 1.0 %], SWC 0.1 year) respectively. Within-player physical fitness reliability and SWC were also established for CMJ (CV = 5.9 % [4.6 to 9.0 %], SWC = 0.6 cm), T-Test (CV = 1.7 % [1.3 to 2.4 %], SWC = 0.08 s), 10 m sprint (CV = 2.7 % [2.2 to 3.4 %], SWC = 0.03 s) and 20 m sprint (CV = 4.9 % [4.1 to 6.4 %], SWC = 0.06 s) performances. This battery of anthropometric and physical fitness field tests observed a high level STR and produced SWC values that will permit talent development (TD) practitioners to implement SWC % to assess changes in player growth, maturity and physical fitness. Research study 2 (Chapter 5) aimed to quantify the relative-age effect (RAE) and examine differences in physical phenotypes owing to the RAE of 731 (U11 to 18) elite youth soccer players sampled from 17 UK soccer development centres. Chi-squared analysis identified a clear un-even birth distribution across all age groups, demonstrating an over-representation of players born in the first quartile (Q1) (U11 to 12: 39%; U13 to 14: 46%; U15 to 16: 57%; U17 to 18: 42%) in comparison to Q4 (U11 to 12: 13%; U13 to 14: 8%; U15 to 16: 8%; U17 to 18: 14%) of the selection year that significantly differed to the distribution expected from National census data (all ≤ 0.001). Small to moderate differences in player stature and body-mass were identified for U11 to 14 players, whereby players born in Q1 were both heavier (ES = 0.48 to 0.57) and taller (ES = 0.62 to 1.06) than players born in Q4. U11 to U12 and U17 to 18 players born in Q1 were generally (ES = 0.37 to 0.70) more mature than their relatively younger (Q4) counterparts. There were no significant differences in agility (P = 0.108 to 0.643), 10 m (P = 0.122 to 0.886) and 20 m (0.090 to 0.911) sprint times between Q1 and Q4 players. However, relatively younger (Q4) U15 to U16 players showed small to moderate (ES = 0.34 to 0.49) inferiority in MSFT performance that continued for Q2 (Q2 vs. Q4: P = 0.041, ES = 0.91). The obvious birth distribution bias identified within this chapter favours the selection of players who are born earlier in the selection year, who possess enhanced maturity related anthropometric and aerobic performance characteristics. Study 3 (Chapter 6) assessed the contribution of relative age, maturity and physical phenotypes upon soccer playing position allocation (goalkeeper [GK], central-defender [CD], lateral-defender [LD], central-midfield [CM], lateral-midfielder [LM], and forward [FWD]) in 465 elite-youth soccer players (U13 to U18`s). U13 to 14 CD were identified as being relatively older than LD (ES = 0.72). CD and GK were generally taller (U13 to 14: ES = 0.49 to 1.19; U15 to 16: ES = 0.72 to 1.48; U17 to 18: ES = 0.96 to 1.58) and heavier (U13 to 14: ES = 0.64 to 1.40; U15 to 16: ES = 0.24 to 1.57; U17 to 18: ES = 0.51 to 1.32) than other players at each developmental stage and were advanced maturers at U13 to 14 (ES = 0.63 to 1.22). Position specific fitness characteristics were distinguished at U17 to 18, where LD and LM were faster than their central counterparts (10m: ES = 0.72 to 0.83; 20m: ES = 0.94 to 1.07). In summary, relative age, maturity and anthropometric characteristics appear to bias the allocation of players into key defensive roles from an early development stage, whereas position-specific physical attributes do not become apparent until the latter stages (U17 to 18) of talent development in outfield players. Study 4 (Chapter 7) assessed the development tempo of anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics according to players decimal age and maturity offset (YPHV) of 969 (U9 to U18) UK elite youth soccer players using battery of 7 field tests. Segmented regression analysis established that estimated stature increases were highest between 10.7 (CI = 10.2 to 11.2) to 15.2 (CI = 14.8 to 11.2) years, and between -3.2 (-3.5 to -2.9) to 0.8 (0.5 to 1.1) YPHV, with estimated annual growth rates of 7.5 (CI = 7.0 to 7.9) and 8.6 (CI = 8.3 to 9.0) cm·year-1 identified for decimal age and YPHV, respectively. Estimated rate of body-mass developmet was also increased (7.1 [CI = 6.6 to 7.6] kg·year-1) between 11.9 (CI = 11.5 to 12.3) to 16.1 (CI = 15.5 to 16.7) years of age, whereas when modelled against somatic maturity, body-mass increases continued at 7.5 (CI = 7.2 to 7.7) kg·year-1 from -1.6 (CI = -2.1 to -1.1) to ~4.0 YPHV, without plataeu. Estimated CMJ development tempo decreased from 2.5 (CI = 2.2 to 2.8) to 1.3 (CI = 0.7 to 1.9) cm·year-1 circa- PHV (0.6 [-0.4 to 1.6] YPHV). Estimated T-Test performance gains ceased from 15.8 (CI = 15.2 to 16.4) years of age onwards, but when modelled against somatic maturity status, improvements slowed by ~43% at 0.4 (CI = -0.1 to 0.9) YPHV. Players estimated endurance capacity increased by 169 (CI = 158 to 179) and 185 (CI = 173 to 198) m·year-1, until 16.4 (CI = 15.9 to 17.0) years and 2.1 (CI = 1.6 to 2.5) years post PHV, respectively. Estimated 10 and 20m sprint performance increased until 11.8 (CI = 11.2 to 12.5) years of age, or -1.8 (CI = -2.5 to -1.0) YPHV, before development tempo increased (31-43%) until 15.8 (CI = 15.3 to 16.3) years, or 1.2 (CI = 0.1 to 2.3) to 1.3 (CI = 0.8 to 1.8)YPHV. Findings identified that model strength for stature and body-mass was slightly higher in YPHV (r2 = 0.89) versus decimal age (r2 = 0.81). However these trends were not apparent for the development of physical fitness attributes. In addition, Chapter 7 revealed that players estimated sprint performance development markedly increased (31 to 43%) between 11.8 years and 15.8 years, or 1.2 to 1.3 YPHV. This data will provide practitioners with a guide to help forecast players’ rate of anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics development at an early stage of their development. Findings here’s suggest that TD practitioners should systematically use estimates of maturity offset to reduce the premature deselection of equally talented but slower players who may reach the same sprint capacity in adulthood, but are slightly later maturers versus there team-mates. In summary, the standardised battery of field-tests used within this thesis observed high levels of STR. There was a clear birth distribution bias that favours the selection of players’ for UK elite soccer development centres, who are born earlier in the selection year. It is likely that transient anthropometric advantages afforded to relatively older players within younger age categories act as a major contributory factor that bias the premature selection and role allocation of these players in to key defensive (GK and CD) roles, before the development of position-specific physical attributes become apparent during the latter stages (U17 to 18) of the EPPP in outfield players. / Likely to be of particular importance to TD practitioners, players’ estimated sprint performance development increased across decimal ages (11.8 to 15.8 years) spanning PHV (-1.8 to 1.3 YPHV), justifying research to further examine the intricacies between training prescription and maturity on sprint speed development. Monitoring player maturity will enable a better understanding of maturity related anthropometric and performance gains, and is likely to improve sensitivity of training prescription and physical phenotype development forecasting. Emphasising the necessity for systematic and consistent monitoring of player growth and maturity that will likely inform talent identification and development processes, and reduce the biases associated with relative age and anthropometric advantages upon talent selection and positional role allocation.

The purpose of this study was to observe changes in sprint velocity, ground contact time, and peak force demonstrated by a competitive sprinter following an integrated approach to speed development and strength training. As part of an ongoing monitoring procedure the participant completed 20m sprint testing through an optical measurement system and isometric-strength testing before and after each phase of training. Sprint velocity, ground contact time and peak force were analysed using Tau-U, smallest worthwhile and percent change statistics. Results indicate sprinting velocity statistically improved while changes in peak force were practically significant and ground contact time remained trivial throughout the investigation. Results lead investigators to suggest the implementation of a periodized approach merging technical skill and the development of physical abilities. The integrated approach provided a transfer of training effect and may have been the primary source of sprint enrichment.