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This study examined the relationship between levels of sports team identification and sentence leniency. It was hypothesized that sharing the same sports team affiliation with the defendant would create bias in the form of juror leniency, and that highly identified fans would show more bias than lower identified fans. A case description of a hit and run accident, in which the defendant was described as a Tampa Bay Buccaneers fan, was read by 220 participants. Results showed a significant difference in recommended sentence length and levels of sympathy between the three groups (High Identity, Low Identity, & No Identity). However, contrary to the original hypothesis, participants who were highly identified with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers recommended a significantly longer sentence for the defendant and were less sympathetic than participants who had lower identification to the Buccaneers and those who had no Buccaneer identification. This paper discusses the relation of this finding with the Reverse Attractive Leniency Effect, as well as the Same-Sex Penalty Effect.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / The purpose of this study is to identify the user features for an online sports community network. Social networks sites are on a rapid increase. Designers of these sites need to consider what features are critical to optimally facilitate their users’ behaviour on these sites. This identification of features will seek to enhance the growth and development of a site’s social communities and allow for its ultimate success. This study focuses on establishing the social networking ecosystem by identifying the role of social networks in society, the user behaviour trends on social network sites and the key features required for a social network site. Furthermore, the study establishes the role of sports fans in society and digital trends for online sports fans visiting sports sites. This study met the research objectives from the findings gained from relevant literature and the employment of an empirical research study. The latter was carried out by means of an online questionnaire targeting an audience that qualified to be both social media lovers and online sports fans. The research disclosed fundamental findings with regards to the user behaviour and frequency of usage of both social network sites and sports sites. Specifically, it was determined that the technological behaviours in the social technographic profile for online users were aligned to those of the social technographic profile for social media lovers and online sports fans. Consequently, the key features of social network sites and most frequently-used features on sports sites could be used to identify the features required for an online sports community network. The main conclusion drawn from this research was a list of features required for a sports community network. These features were determined for the initial launch phase of a sports community network. Enhancement and development of new features would be required to facilitate the user requirements as the site grows. It is therefore important for the success of the sports community site that the owners or designers continuously review the user requirements and adapt, enhance and develop features as the site gains traction. This research study recommends that the list provided be used for the initial design and launch phase of an online sports community network. This list should be constantly evaluated from a usercentric perspective as the site grows.

This thesis explores the team identification of fans of a new sport team, using social identity theory. As there is limited research on fans of new sport teams, this study sought to redress this situation by seeking to explain and measure new team identification. Through investigating new team identification, this study extends current applications of social identity theory and understanding of fans of a new sport team. Additionally, by measuring new team identification, this thesis contributes a valid and reliable measure of the construct, and discovery of key themes driving the formation and development of new team identification. A mixed-method research design was used to investigate the central thesis topic. A case study of members of a new sport team, Sydney FC, provided the sample population. The research design included two surveys, administered at the end of the new team’s first and second seasons, respectively, in addition to twenty-one interviews undertaken to deepen understanding of new team identification. The Sports Spectator Identity Scale (SSIS) was used to measure new team identification and test for differences in identity strength based on participant characteristics. Results indicated that three defining behaviours provided the basis for the formation of new team identification. These were termed: Football first, Origin and Occasion. Measurement of new team identification using the SSIS validated the model in a new team context; however, the value of victory and the identification of rival groupings did not relate strongly to the construct. Member identity strength was significantly influenced by age, salary, membership category and games attended. Five behaviours underpinned the development of new team identification; these were termed: Searching, Expression, Eagerness, Names and Faces, and Spruiking. Social identity theory provided a useful framework to explore the formation and extent of new team identification. The formation of new team identification was strongly influenced by support of football, in this case. The implementation of the SSIS to measure new team identification extended its previous applications. Participant characteristics exerted a clear influence on the strength of new team identification. Members engaged in additional teamrelated behaviours as their new team identification increased and they developed multi-faceted and socially important bonds. Stemming from the key thesis findings, the conceptual outcomes provided a significant contribution to current literature exploring members of new sport teams. Furthermore, the nuanced differences between identification with new and established teams provide a distinct agenda for future research into new sport teams.

This thesis explores the team identification of fans of a new sport team, using social identity theory. As there is limited research on fans of new sport teams, this study sought to redress this situation by seeking to explain and measure new team identification. Through investigating new team identification, this study extends current applications of social identity theory and understanding of fans of a new sport team. Additionally, by measuring new team identification, this thesis contributes a valid and reliable measure of the construct, and discovery of key themes driving the formation and development of new team identification. A mixed-method research design was used to investigate the central thesis topic. A case study of members of a new sport team, Sydney FC, provided the sample population. The research design included two surveys, administered at the end of the new team’s first and second seasons, respectively, in addition to twenty-one interviews undertaken to deepen understanding of new team identification. The Sports Spectator Identity Scale (SSIS) was used to measure new team identification and test for differences in identity strength based on participant characteristics. Results indicated that three defining behaviours provided the basis for the formation of new team identification. These were termed: Football first, Origin and Occasion. Measurement of new team identification using the SSIS validated the model in a new team context; however, the value of victory and the identification of rival groupings did not relate strongly to the construct. Member identity strength was significantly influenced by age, salary, membership category and games attended. Five behaviours underpinned the development of new team identification; these were termed: Searching, Expression, Eagerness, Names and Faces, and Spruiking. Social identity theory provided a useful framework to explore the formation and extent of new team identification. The formation of new team identification was strongly influenced by support of football, in this case. The implementation of the SSIS to measure new team identification extended its previous applications. Participant characteristics exerted a clear influence on the strength of new team identification. Members engaged in additional teamrelated behaviours as their new team identification increased and they developed multi-faceted and socially important bonds. Stemming from the key thesis findings, the conceptual outcomes provided a significant contribution to current literature exploring members of new sport teams. Furthermore, the nuanced differences between identification with new and established teams provide a distinct agenda for future research into new sport teams.

Globalisation and advances in communications technology have greatly expanded the potential marketplace for professional teams, especially for internationally popular sports. Lewis (2001) claimed that fans are now more likely to support a team based less on a shared geographic connection than on personal reasons. As Ben-Porat (2000) claimed, for these fans a foreign-based team is like “an 'overseas sweetheart,' far away but close to the heart” (p. 344). These 'satellite supporters,' (Kerr 2008, in press), or 'satellite fans' (Kerr & Gladden 2008) represent significant revenue, especially for those team brands that seek international expansion. In addition, an individual's decision to purchase the sports product is largely dependent upon their level of identification with a chosen team. Team identification, or “the extent to which a fan feels psychologically connected” (Wann, Melnick, Russell & Pease 2001, p. 3) to a particular team, is critical to the financial viability of a sports organisation. However, despite the increased attention paid to team identification, the reasons why satellite supporters identify with a foreign-based team have been largely unexplored. To address this need this study asks: What are the most important antecedents in the identification of satellite supporters with their chosen sports team? Recent research also suggests that a relationship exists between team identification and brand equity (Carlson, Quazi & Muthaly 2002; Kerr 2008; Underwood, Bond & Baer 2001). Therefore, the study also asks: Can a conceptual brand equity framework predict the determinants of team identification of satellite supporters? The thesis adopts a case study approach using mixed methods; a strategy that can provide “a fuller understanding of the sports fan” (Jones 1997b). Online questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were administered to members of fan organisations dedicated to the English Premier League's Liverpool F.C. Liverpool F.C. was an appropriate subject for the case study as it has a global fan base, a rich history, and is arguably one of the world's premier team brands. This thesis proposes a number of important antecedents in the satellite supporter's identification with a foreign-based team. These are: media coverage; style of play; the presence of particular player(s); team success; history of success; participation in the highest division; stadium; history of ethical behaviour; and the broadcast quality of games. Furthermore, a conceptual brand equity framework is shown to shed light on the possible determinants of their team identification. This study also confirms that social identity theory is an appropriate perspective to examine foreign fandom; satellite supporters might derive positive psychological benefits from their fandom; and the existence of a brand community dedicated to a professional sports organisation.

This thesis explores the team identification of fans of a new sport team, using social identity theory. As there is limited research on fans of new sport teams, this study sought to redress this situation by seeking to explain and measure new team identification. Through investigating new team identification, this study extends current applications of social identity theory and understanding of fans of a new sport team. Additionally, by measuring new team identification, this thesis contributes a valid and reliable measure of the construct, and discovery of key themes driving the formation and development of new team identification. A mixed-method research design was used to investigate the central thesis topic. A case study of members of a new sport team, Sydney FC, provided the sample population. The research design included two surveys, administered at the end of the new team’s first and second seasons, respectively, in addition to twenty-one interviews undertaken to deepen understanding of new team identification. The Sports Spectator Identity Scale (SSIS) was used to measure new team identification and test for differences in identity strength based on participant characteristics. Results indicated that three defining behaviours provided the basis for the formation of new team identification. These were termed: Football first, Origin and Occasion. Measurement of new team identification using the SSIS validated the model in a new team context; however, the value of victory and the identification of rival groupings did not relate strongly to the construct. Member identity strength was significantly influenced by age, salary, membership category and games attended. Five behaviours underpinned the development of new team identification; these were termed: Searching, Expression, Eagerness, Names and Faces, and Spruiking. Social identity theory provided a useful framework to explore the formation and extent of new team identification. The formation of new team identification was strongly influenced by support of football, in this case. The implementation of the SSIS to measure new team identification extended its previous applications. Participant characteristics exerted a clear influence on the strength of new team identification. Members engaged in additional teamrelated behaviours as their new team identification increased and they developed multi-faceted and socially important bonds. Stemming from the key thesis findings, the conceptual outcomes provided a significant contribution to current literature exploring members of new sport teams. Furthermore, the nuanced differences between identification with new and established teams provide a distinct agenda for future research into new sport teams.

Globalisation and advances in communications technology have greatly expanded the potential marketplace for professional teams, especially for internationally popular sports. Lewis (2001) claimed that fans are now more likely to support a team based less on a shared geographic connection than on personal reasons. As Ben-Porat (2000) claimed, for these fans a foreign-based team is like “an 'overseas sweetheart,' far away but close to the heart” (p. 344). These 'satellite supporters,' (Kerr 2008, in press), or 'satellite fans' (Kerr & Gladden 2008) represent significant revenue, especially for those team brands that seek international expansion. In addition, an individual's decision to purchase the sports product is largely dependent upon their level of identification with a chosen team. Team identification, or “the extent to which a fan feels psychologically connected” (Wann, Melnick, Russell & Pease 2001, p. 3) to a particular team, is critical to the financial viability of a sports organisation. However, despite the increased attention paid to team identification, the reasons why satellite supporters identify with a foreign-based team have been largely unexplored. To address this need this study asks: What are the most important antecedents in the identification of satellite supporters with their chosen sports team? Recent research also suggests that a relationship exists between team identification and brand equity (Carlson, Quazi & Muthaly 2002; Kerr 2008; Underwood, Bond & Baer 2001). Therefore, the study also asks: Can a conceptual brand equity framework predict the determinants of team identification of satellite supporters? The thesis adopts a case study approach using mixed methods; a strategy that can provide “a fuller understanding of the sports fan” (Jones 1997b). Online questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were administered to members of fan organisations dedicated to the English Premier League's Liverpool F.C. Liverpool F.C. was an appropriate subject for the case study as it has a global fan base, a rich history, and is arguably one of the world's premier team brands. This thesis proposes a number of important antecedents in the satellite supporter's identification with a foreign-based team. These are: media coverage; style of play; the presence of particular player(s); team success; history of success; participation in the highest division; stadium; history of ethical behaviour; and the broadcast quality of games. Furthermore, a conceptual brand equity framework is shown to shed light on the possible determinants of their team identification. This study also confirms that social identity theory is an appropriate perspective to examine foreign fandom; satellite supporters might derive positive psychological benefits from their fandom; and the existence of a brand community dedicated to a professional sports organisation.

Professional sports leagues in North America have seen scandals, controversies, and tragedies. There is, however, a forgotten scandal that happened in the 1990s: the Russian Mafia came dangerously close to the National Hockey League. This thesis explores the alleged Mafia connections by examining newspaper and magazine articles and documentaries focused on the issue. The limited public response to allegations of Russian Mafia involvement is contrasted with other professional sports controversies that were met with an immediate response by the leagues and fans. How North Americans viewed Russians during the post-Soviet era is also explored in this paper. This thesis examines why evident Mafia involvement with National Hockey League players did not provoke attention and sanctions by the league nor an outcry from the fans. This study will conclude the League did not react to the allegations because it felt as if the games were not harmed directly. Also, hockey fans did not find the allegations surprising because of the media's constant reports of corruption within Russia's borders, especially involving organized crime. Perhaps the lack of reaction by the National Hockey League and its fans suggests why this particular scandal is forgotten a mere 20 years later.

abstract: This dissertation investigated positive intergroup contact and communication in the experiences of fans at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Guided by concepts from Intergroup Contact Theory (ICT), formerly Allport’s (1954) Contact Hypothesis, I asked fans to identify and discuss factors that were relevant to their experiences at the event. These factors are reported in previous literature to foster positive intergroup relations. The fan participants also provided detailed, experience-based rationales for why and how the factors supported each other and created individual models of their experiences of ICT at the Olympics. The study relied on participant-centered, in-depth qualitative interviews using Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) software. Based on an integration of ICT, communication theories, social capital concepts, and calls from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and mega-sporting event industry, the dissertation sought to answer four research questions. It started with a broad approach to the array of previous scholars’ ICT factors in order to identify what factors were present and relevant in fans’ experiences. It also sought to understand why and how the factors worked together by analyzing the ways factors related to and supported each other in Olympic fans’ experiences and producing a composite meta-structure of the factors’ relationships. Additionally, through thematic analysis, the research explored where and when in fans’ experiences the factors emerged and were active. Finally, the study identified the functions that each ICT factor served in fostering positive intergroup contact and communication and offered suggestions for practitioners and organizers of intergroup contexts. The study aimed to make theoretical contributions by addressing gaps and calls in ICT literature, as well as practical contributions by providing insight about how to organize intergroup contexts to foster positive contact and communication. In addition to addressing its research questions, the study provided a comprehensive list of previous scholars’ ICT factors, a preliminary, tentative model of ICT for ideal intergroup contexts adapted from Pettigrew’s (1998) model of group membership transformation for problematic contexts, and promising future directions given the unique, ideal, and unexplored features of the Olympics. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Communication 2017