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Background: Long distance road running is continually growing as competitive and recreational sport, globally. Despite its popularity, a high burden of incidence of injury exists among runners. Previous research has focussed on specific injuries, whereas others have investigated isolated risk factors that may contribute to running related injuries. The purpose of the study is to determine possible internal and external screening variables that may predict the incidence of running-related injuries in general. Methods: Forty one recreational runners participated in an observational study over the course of 12 weeks. Screening assessments consisted of injury history, training history, and anthropometric measurements. Functional and performance assessments included the Foot Posture Index (FPI), the Functional Movement Screen (FMS), vertical jump, single leg hop and sit-and-reach tests. Participants were monitored over a period of 12 weeks by completing a weekly online logbook regarding their training and possible incidence of injury. Monitoring was terminated after 12 weeks of observation. Differences between injured and non-injured runners were determined using Independent -T-tests for mean differences, or Mann-Whitney U Test for distributional differences (non-parametric data). Binomial Logistic regression models were used to determine the influence of internal, external functional and external behavioural factors on the risk for running injury, respectively. Results: The total group revealed a cumulative incidence of injury of 63% over the 12 weeks of observation. There was no gender difference between incidences of injuries over the 12 week observation training period (OTP). Injured runners achieved a higher total FMS score (median = 16, Interquartile Range = 3) compared to uninjured runners (median = 15, Interquartile range = 3; p = 0.006). Binomial logistic regression models of external functional (FMS, Vertical Jump, Sit-and-Reach scores) factors [X² (3) = 9.764, p = 0.021] were statistically significant. Only the FMS score contributed significantly to the incidence of injury (p = 0.013) of the three external functional factors in the Regression Model. Discussion and Conclusion: The study adds to current evidence that the assessment of the Functional Movement Screen is important in predicting injury, however, the present study shows that a higher score obtained during the FMS increase your odds to sustain an injury. The study is in contrast with the body of evidence that the incidence of previous injury is the strongest predictor of the incidence of a current injury. The study concluded that the Functional Movement Screen is a useful screening tool to determine a long distance runner's risk for running-related injuries and should be included in health-injury risk assessments of recreational runners.

The physiological responses to upper-body exercise (UBE) are well established. Few published studies, however, have attempted to elucidate the mechanical ventilatory responses to UBE. There is empirical evidence that respiratory function may be compromised by UBE during which the ventilatory and postural functions of the ‘respiratory’ muscles may be exacerbated. Therefore, the aims of this thesis were: 1) to characterise the mechanical-ventilatory responses to UBE in healthy subjects; 2) to explore the putative mechanisms that underpin the respiratory responses to UBE; and 3) to assess whether the mechanical-ventilatory stress imposed by UBE induces contractile fatigue of the respiratory muscles. Compared to lower-body exercise (LBE; leg cycling) at ventilation-matched work rates, UBE (arm-cranking) resulted in constraint of tidal volume, higher respiratory frequency, and greater neural drive to the respiratory muscles. Furthermore, end-expiratory lung volume was significantly elevated during peak UBE compared to LBE (39 ± 8 vs. 29 ± 8% vital capacity, p < 0.05) and was independent of expiratory flow limitation. In assessing the influence of cadence on cardiorespiratory function and respiratory mechanics, submaximal arm-cranking at high cadence (90 rev.min-1) induced significantly greater cardiorespiratory stress, a trend towards elevated intra-thoracic pressures and significantly greater perceptions of dyspnoea than at low cadence (50 rev.min-1). Furthermore, there was a greater prevalence of locomotor-respiratory coupling at high cadences (p < 0.05), suggestive of greater antagonistic loading of the thoracic muscles, likely the result of static postural contractions. Finally, there was objective evidence of abdominal muscle contractile fatigue in response to severe- but not heavy-intensity UBE. Specifically, there was a 22% decrease in gastric twitch pressure from pre- to post-exercise in response to magnetic stimulation of the thoracic nerves (p < 0.05). However, there was limited evidence of exercise-induced diaphragm fatigue, as assessed using magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves (p > 0.05). In conclusion, mechanical-ventilatory function may be compromised during UBE due to complex interactions between thoracic muscle recruitment, central neural drive and thoracic volume displacement. This thesis presents novel findings which may have important functional implications for clinical populations who report breathlessness during activities of daily living that involve the upper-body, as well as for athletes engaged in upper-body sports.

This thesis explores America’s fascination with its own sports as purveyors of national identity. American literature has found unique inspiration in sporting competition, not only depicting professional athletes, but drawing from the experiences of fans and amateurs. While the athlete’s heroism and eventual fall has been analysed in previous discussions of this topic, my route of inquiry positions decline and defeat as more central and complex concepts. The focus of this thesis is on the remarkably diverse ways in which contemporary writers reimagine aspects of sporting failure both for their characters and within their own creative process. The centrality of failure seems an affront to the United States’ celebration of success and victory. However, the common strand in the most ambitious contemporary sports writing is to portray experiences of loss and failure as paradoxical routes to self-affirmation. Postmodern writing on sports has taken from the drama and narrative implicit in sporting contest, but uses this framework to question ideas of masculinity, ethnicity, memory and myth. The writers I discuss incorporate failure into these themes to arrive at points of redemptive discovery.

Mental toughness (MT) originated within elite sport and was identified as an attribute of success. MT has emerged as being important for enhancing health-related lifestyle factors (HRLF; e.g., physical activity). Investigating the healthiness of one’s lifestyle appears a timely area to research given the current health status of the population. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate MT in relation to HRLF and weight loss. Study One investigated MT and HRLF in university students (n = 167). Self-reported MT, physical activity, exercise barriers, dietary behaviour, and psychological wellbeing were recorded. MT was significantly different between regular exercisers (M = 3.43 ± .42) and non-regular exercisers (M = 3.24 ± .54, p < .05). Components of eating identity, exercise barriers, and psychological wellbeing, were significantly correlated with MT. Study Two longitudinally investigated weight loss progress, and adherence to a weight loss support group, in slimming club members who were pursuing a weight loss goal (n = 132). MT and eating identity were assessed at baseline, three-months, and six-months, and weight was recorded at weekly meetings. Overall MT was not significantly related to weight loss (r = -.15, p > 0.05) or adherence to the service (r = .03, p > 0.05). Study Three sampled individuals who held a weight loss goal, but were not attending a weight loss support club (n = 78). Overall MT was not significantly related to weight loss (r = -.21, p > 0.05). MT was not significantly different between weight loss goal achievers (M = 3.62 ± .49) and non-goal achievers (M =3.42 ± .38, p > 0.05). Thus, irrespective of whether structured support is received, overall MT was not related to weight loss progress. II Study Four investigated the experiences of high (n = 9) and low (n = 7) mentally tough individuals pursing a weight loss goal. High and low MT individuals, identified using the MTQ48, were interviewed. Thematic analysis revealed that amongst the high mentally tough individuals, those who prioritised leading a healthy lifestyle reported weight loss success compared to those who prioritised other goals. Strategies to overcome low levels of MT (e.g., control), as well as receive additional support, appeared crucial for successful weight loss in low MT individuals. Study Five further investigated the low MT individuals’ (n = 7) perceptions, experiences, and attitudes, towards weight loss. Low MT individuals were sampled based on their MT score assessed via the MTQ48. Vignette based interviews extended the findings in Study Four. Thematic analysis revealed key findings, including the potential to change low MT individuals’ perceptions to enhance behaviour change. Overall, this thesis expanded the understanding of MT; the processes that one experiences when trying to lose weight appears to differentiate between high and low MT individuals, which offers an explanation as to why MT did not appear to play a significant role in weight loss outcomes. These findings challenged the predominant contemporary understanding of MT and demonstrated that MT was not associated with behaviour change to achieve weight loss.

Imagery and self-talk are functionally similar and theoretically connected psychological strategies. In accordance with the multi-strategy approach to psychological skills training, there have been suggestions that athletes should use imagery and self-talk in conjunction (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001a). Although intuitively appealing, these recommendations are premature due to the evidence suggesting that situational demands, functional requirements and individual differences may influence athlete preferences for usage. This thesis aimed to address this ambiguity and identify the factors influencing the use and effectiveness of imagery and self-talk in golfers. The first three studies used a variety of methodologies including surveys, interviews and focus groups to profile existing practice and determine the predominant factors affecting usage. The final study examined the performance effects associated with the use of an imagery and self-talk intervention, that had been created based on the profiled information. Study one determined the impact that individual differences in golfers’ preferred cognitive styles had on their use of imagery and self-talk in practice and competition. Results revealed that golfers’ preferred cognitive styles did not influence the formation of preferences for the use of one strategy rather than the other. Instead, all golfers reported using both strategies equally, although their use was reported more widely in competition than practice. Whilst study one ruled out preferred cognitive style as a determinant of golfers’ preferences for the use of imagery and self-talk, it did not clarify how and why the two intervention strategies were used independently and in combination. The purpose of study two was therefore to identify how golfers used imagery and self-talk in combination and separately, considering the influence of contextual factors and functional requirements. Findings indicated that rather than employing the use of the strategies continuously throughout competition, golfers emphasised their use prior to the execution of particular golf strokes in specific conditions. Study three identified the common characteristics of the competitive situations where golfers employed the use of imagery and self-talk. Findings revealed that golfers emphasised, and actively used, imagery and self-talk most when playing golf strokes under stressful competitive conditions. As a result of this finding, the next phase of study three examined how golfers used imagery and self-talk as problem and emotion focussed coping strategies when playing golf strokes under stressful competitive conditions. Results indicated that golfers predominantly used imagery and self-talk as problem focussed coping strategies, making more use of imagery than self talk. The purpose of the fourth study was to examine the effectiveness of using imagery in isolation, and in combination with self-talk, as a problem focussed coping strategy when dealing with golf strokes under stressful conditions in competitive situations. Findings revealed that golfers perceived their execution of golf strokes under stressful conditions to be most effective when imagery and self-talk were used in combination. However, this perceived advantage did not translate into identifiable performance gains during the monitored competitive rounds. Although the inherent variability of golf performance might have made it difficult to determine noticeable changes in performance, it was suggested that the lack of effects observed may have been due to the fact that imagery and self-talk as problem focussed coping strategies were simply ineffective. Findings taken together revealed that contextual factors are the most influential determinant of golfers’ use of imagery and self talk. Furthermore, golfers emphasise the use of imagery and self-talk most when they need to perform golf strokes under stressful conditions, applying their use as problem focussed coping strategies. However, results from the final study appeared to suggest that this approach to the use of imagery and self-talk might be ineffective.

Due to geometrical features, it is claimed that larger femoral heads in total hip replacement (THR) are superior in achieving normal biomechanics than smaller ones; and that hip resurfacing (RSF) is superior to THR. This has not been conclusively proven. Most studies have investigated level walking, which may not be demanding enough to highlight what could be small biomechanical differences between implants. Few biomechanical studies have compared more demanding tasks and not with patients with different femoral head sizes or RSF. This thesis aimed to address these omissions by investigating level walking, stair descent and sit-to-stand (STS) biomechanics between three groups (32mm THR, 36mm THR and RSF). Twenty-six osteoarthritis patients were recruited and tested pre-operatively, then three and twelve months post-operatively. Demographic differences between groups were expected due to patient considerations for different implants, so a study was performed to determine whether level walking biomechanics alter progressively during the aging process with a group of 63 healthy participants. Three matched sub-groups were extracted from this group as controls. There was no suggestion that gait deteriorates progressively with age. Hip reconstruction, irrespective of head size, can allow patients to return to the biomechanical levels of controls during level walking. Stair descent differences remained 12 months post-operatively in cadence (p=0.042) and peak hip power generated (p<0.001) compared to controls. The 32mm group exhibited vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) asymmetry pre-operatively (p<0.001) and 3 months post-operatively (p=0.013); and impulse asymmetry (p<0.001) pre-operatively during STS. The 36mm group exhibited impulse asymmetry (p=0.05)three months post-operatively. This thesis is the first biomechanical analysis of stair descent and STS of two THR groups and a RSF group. It has demonstrated stair descent differences at 12 months post-operatively and overloading of the healthy limb in some THR patients. The latter could be problematic for the healthy limb.

Recent research has found that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism have distinct consequences for athletes. The purpose of the thesis was to extend this research by further examining their motivational consequences for athletes and identifying the psychological mechanisms that explain their divergent consequences. The first two studies suggested that the positive relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and athlete burnout was mediated by the tendency to engage in validation-seeking and utilise avoidant coping, whereas the inverse relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and athlete burnout was mediated by the tendency to utilise problem-focused coping and eschew avoidant coping. Because these initial studies provided little evidence to suggest that self-oriented perfectionism has negative psychological consequences for athletes, the nature of self-oriented perfectionism and its consequences were examined more closely in two subsequent studies. A comparative study examining similarities and differences in the correlates of selforiented perfectionism and conscientious achievement striving found that while both include a commitment to high standards, self-oriented perfectionism also includes a concern over mistakes, fear of failure and negative reactions to imperfection. An experimental study examining the response of student-athletes II higher in this dimension of perfectionism to successive failures further suggested that, in comparison to those with lower levels of self-oriented perfectionism, those with higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism experienced a more pronounced increase in threat following an initial failure and reported withdrawing effort from the subsequent performance. The final two studies suggest that the divergent consequences of these two dimensions of perfectionism may also be explained by differences in the controllability of sources of self-worth and evaluative standards. In addition, in some instances, perceptions of the achievement climate may influence the self-criticism experienced by perfectionists. Collectively, this series of studies suggest that socially prescribed perfectionism will invariably lead to motivational and psychological difficulties for athletes. In contrast, such difficulties may not be inevitable for those with higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism; however, it may render athletes vulnerable to psychological difficulties when personal standards are not meet.

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The goal of this study is to examine the dynamics under-pinning the reproduction or transformation of gender power relations within two sport organisations. Across society we have images of women making ground and experiencing far greater prospects than ever before. Yet, on the other hand, this is bound up with continuous examples of little progress in work. For instance, while there are more opportunities for women across work than at any other point in the 20th Century, they continue to be segregated from men in a large number of jobs. Similar gendered patterns of progress are reflected in sport. There are now far more female participants in sport, however they remain concentrated in 'appropriate' sports which reflect historical images of femininity. Broadly, sport and work also dictate stereotypical images for male participants. While broad levels of change are occurring across society, central to this thesis is whether dominant patterns of gender relations are transformed or reproduced at the micro level of sport- related work. Critically sport organisations are selected because sport's history continues to demonstrate patterns of male dominance. Secondly, the growth of sport provision has occurred in a service area, an arena traditionally dominated by women workers. Finally, sport is one of the few sectors which traverses both the public and private industries, providing the basis for a comparative study. Therefore, employment within sport provides an opportunity to examine the ways in which gender power relations are challenged or reproduced when two diverse sets of relations meet. The theoretical framework draws heavily from feminist theory, particularly radical, socialist feminist and post-structuralism. A qualitative research strategy provides the framework for a comparative case study methodology. Seventy-five interviews were conducted across the two case study organisations, which are located in the North. Past Times is a contracted out leisure centre and Sporting Goods a privately owned sports clothing and equipment firm. Both companies are in the service industry but come from two diverse backgrounds. Sporting Goods developed from a manufacturing heritage and Past Times is breaking away from direct local authority control as a result of CCT. At the time of the research both establishments were experiencing high levels of organisational change. While Past Times breaks with tradition in having a female manager and Sporting Goods contrasts with a traditional management structure, hegemonic masculinity dominated across both organisations. Overall gender power relations were reproduced through day-to-day practices that appeal to, and perpetuate, common sense understandings of men and women's roles at work. The sport environment provided a critical site for the strengthening of homosocial relationships among men and enabled the identification of three interacting components of gender: bodies, identities and sexualities. These components together contribute to the ongoing construction of a logic of difference which is more highly defined in the sport environment.