The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of congruence of leadership behaviors on motivation, commitment, and satisfaction of college tennis players. Respondents (n = 245) included collegiate tennis players from all NCAA division levels (I, II, and III). The athletes were asked to complete a demographic questionnaire, the preferred and perceived versions of the Revised Leadership Scale for Sports, Sport Motivation Scale, Sport Commitment Model Scale, and Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire. The responses were collected in an online format. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each of the demographic variables. Alpha (Cronbach) coefficients were calculated for the components of each measurement scale to verify internal consistency. Multivariate multiple regression analyses were utilized to determine the effect of demographic variables on leadership behavior preferences. In order to avoid the potential problems associated with the use of difference scores (Peter, Churchill, & Brown, 1993), a regression technique was applied to evaluate the leadership congruence hypothesis. The base scores (i.e. preferences and perceptions) were entered first followed by their interactional term (preferred x perceived). Two sets of multiple regression equations were calculated. In the first set, preference scores were entered first followed by the perceptions and the interaction term, and the second set followed a similar format but reversed the order of the preference and perception terms. The congruence hypothesis was accepted if the interaction significantly increased the amount of variance explained. The results of this study indicated that neither gender nor ability level were predictive of preferred leadership behavior. Furthermore, the congruency of certain preferred and perceived leadership behaviors predicted intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, extrinsic motivation identified, amotivation, sport commitment, sport enjoyment, individual performance satisfaction, personal treatment satisfaction, team performance satisfaction, and training and instruction satisfaction. The findings are discussed in the context of Chelladurai's (1999) Multidimensional Model of Leadership. Future research suggestions are forwarded. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2004. / Date of Defense: August 3, 2004. / Tennis, athlete, leadership, commitment, satisfaction, motivation, NCAA / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela Perrewe, Outside Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine Senior Woman Administrators (SWAs) perception of organizational commitment. Three types of organizational commitment were surveyed: affective, normative, and continuance commitment. This study was delimited to Senior Woman Administrators (n=66) at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division IAA member institutions across the country. This study used the Organizational Commitment Scale(s) to examine Senior Woman Administrators (SWAs) perceptions of organizational commitment. The study examined the relationship between the demographic variables of ethnicity, marital status, current annual salary, age, years in present position, highest degree earned, and alumni status and organizational commitment. The study also examined the significant differences between the demographic variables and organizational commitment. The results of this study revealed the demographic variables of current annual salary, age, and alumni status were significantly related to affective organizational commitment, ethnicity was significantly related to normative organizational commitment and alumni status was significantly related to continuance organizational commitment. The results also revealed that there were significant differences in mean scores for SWAs perception of affective organizational commitment according to age and alumni status and there was a significant difference in mean scores for SWAs perception of normative organizational commitment according to alumni status. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. / Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2007. / Date of Defense: November 6, 2006. / Female Sport Managers, Woman Sport Administrator, Organizational Commitment, Senior Woman Administrator, Female Athletic Administrators, Women Sport Managers / Includes bibliographical references. / Jerome Quarterman, Professor Directing Dissertation; Maxine D. Jones, Outside Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Virden Evans, Committee Member; E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Committee Member.

Purpose: To assess whether the provision of a pedometer and exercise diary could significantly increase the activity levels of phase II cardiac rehabilitation program patients on the days they did not attend the program. Methods: Seventy patients (53 males, 17 females, age of 68 plus/minus 9 yrs, BMI 29.0 plus/minus 6.1 kg/m2 participated in the study. During their first visit to a phase II CRP, patients were assigned to one of two groups. Control patients were given a blinded pedometer (n = 34), while experimental subjects received a pedometer that they could view (n = 36) as well as an exercise diary to record their daily step counts. Control patients wore the pedometer during all of their waking hours throughout phase II CRP enrollment and were encouraged to increase their overall activity levels in accordance with standard level of care. The baseline activity patterns of were determined during their first week of phase II CRP enrollment. Patients in the experimental group were encouraged to gradually increase their step counts on the days (Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday and Sunday; i.e., non-CRP days) they did not attend phase II CRP gradually until they were accumulating 2,000 steps/day above their baseline levels. Two sample t-tests were used to compare the baseline physical characteristics between genders as well as the control and experimental groups. Mean weekly step counts for both groups were compared based on overall and aerobic steps counts accumulated on CRP and non-CRP days using 2 times 7 repeated-measures ANOVAs. Results: At baseline, men took more overall steps than women and all patients took more steps on days they attended the phase II CRP, versus days they did not. There was a significant effect (p < 0.0001) of group assignment and time for overall and aerobic step counts on non-CRP days; as the experimental patients took significantly more steps and increased their step counts at a faster rate than the control patients. There was no significant interaction on CRP days as both groups significantly increased their overall and aerobic steps counts. Conclusion: Phase II CRP patients who used a pedometer and exercise diary significantly increased their overall and aerobic steps counts on CRP and non-CRP days, to a greater extent than patients who received usual care. Thus, pedometers can be used to increase the physical activity levels of phase II CRP patients.

The purposes of this study were to examine coaches’ perceptions of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice regarding current resource distribution systems in intercollegiate athletics in terms of sport types (high profile sports vs. low profile sports) and gender of players (male participant sports vs. female participant sports) and the impacts of direct or indirect organizational justice on coaches’ attitudinal (job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment toward organization and supervisor) and behavioral (organizational citizenship behavior for organization and supervisor) outcomes through the mediating effects of met expectations, outcome satisfaction, and social exchange relationships (perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange) via a multifoci perspective. The data were collected through online surveys of 260 coaches among 1,200 coaches contacted at NCAA Division I, II, and III institutions. The survey questionnaire consisted of demographics, organizational justice, met expectations, outcome satisfaction, leader-member exchange (LMX), perceived organizational support (POS), job satisfaction, employee commitment (organizational commitment and supervisor commitment), and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB to benefit an organization and OCB to benefit a supervisor). Descriptive statistics were incorporated to provide demographic information of the sample and means and standardized deviations for each construct. Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated and reported for the components of each measurement scale to verify internal consistency. MANOVA were utilized to explore differences of perceptions of organizational justice in terms of gender of sport and type of sport. Finally, SEM was incorporated to examine the measurement model by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and to test the proposed structural model of this study. The results of this study provided some important information. First, coaches of all groups based on gender of sports and type of sports reported below the scale’s midpoint and there were no significant differences among the groups. Second, the proposed mediating effects of met expectation of organizational justice were not supported. Third, procedural justice indirectly influenced attitudinal outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction and organizational commitment), while distributive justice did not directly or indirectly influence those outcomes. Finally, procedural justice eventually influenced organizational citizenship behaviors through the mediating effects of POS and coaches’ job satisfaction and commitment.

Sport participation is a significant aspect in many people’s lives. The experiences they accumulate in sport are shaped by a variety of factors. A combination of personal factors (e.g., demographics), social factors (e.g., socializing sources and the support they provide), and structural factors (e.g., costs and accessible programs) uniquely shape each individual’s experience. Since a variety of factors can shape that experience, it is useful to examine perceptions of the factors were significant in the creation of an individual’s participation opportunities and experiences in sport. The purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to gain insight into the personal, social, and structural factors participants perceived were significant on their sport participation experiences throughout various stages of their lives; (b) to gain insight into the personal, social, and structural factors participants perceived were significant upon their children’s sport experiences; and (c) to illustrate differences that exist among participants’ own and their children’s sport experiences. Eleven participants were involved in this study. Participants had firsthand experience in an organized sport during their youth and/or adolescence. Participants also had at least one child under the age of 13 who was active in an organized sport at the time of data collection. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews. Variety in participants’ gender, race, age, household income, education, and occupation were present. Difference in participants’ and their children’s sport experiences emerged and were reported in five themes. Those themes are: Sources of Socialization, (b) Gendered Constructions Shaping Sport Experiences, (c) Parental Presence in Youth Sport, (d) Self-confidence and Skill, and (e) Structural Constraints upon Participation. These themes reflect variance in the sport experiences among this group of participants and their perceptions of their own and their children’s experiences. The framework of this study utilized descriptive and hermeneutical inquiry. The descriptive element was expressed through a realist approach that relied on information learned from the participants (Creswell, 2007). Hermeneutical inquiry, which is concerned with interpretive understanding and context surrounding engagement in the particular act, was reflected through participants’ assessments of their experiences.

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of Korean players on the LPGA Tour regarding issues of social justice. More specifically, this study examined how Korean players perceived their experiences of race and gender during their athletic careers in the U. S. The participants of the study were 11 Korean professional golfers who were enrolled as members of the LPGA in 2007. The qualitative methodology of interviewing was employed which consisted of semi-structured questions within cultural studies and feminist standpoint theory. Six semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted: three group and three individual interviews. After data collection was completed, the data was analyzed using inductive analysis method to create themes. Consequently, this study discovered that the Korean players on the LPGA Tour had negative experiences toward the treatment they received during their careers in the U.S. In regards to the experiences related to their race, Korean players believed that racial discrimination existed in the LPGA Tour. They thought that they were singled-out, and it was easy that one Korean player‟s fault became generalized as all Korean players‟ problem. In addition, Media (e.g., Golf Channel) and the LPGA were indifferent to Korean players in terms of displaying Korean players on television and at the LPGA website. Above all, Korean players were silent to the perceived racial discrimination due to their lack of fluency in English. Regarding the experiences related to their gender, it was revealed that, as a social institution, the LPGA had played a significant role in producing traditional gender ideologies, by emphasizing female golfers‟ femininity. In addition, as a majority of the society, white male caddies as well as male Pro-Am players sexually harassed Korean players either verbally or physically. Most importantly, sexual harassment occurring to Korean players on the LPGA Tour could be considered sexual racism due to its nature that a majority group of people (white male caddies) of the society discriminated against minority women from an Asian country.

A career-ending injury is an event that causes the involuntary termination of an athlete‟s participation in his or her chosen sport. Over the last decade, research has focused on injury and career transition; however little was known about athletes‟ experience of career-ending injury. The purpose of this study was to obtain in-depth descriptions of the lived experience of athletes who have had a career-ending injury. Using an existential phenomenological approach, the focus of the study was on the athletes‟ own perceptions of this experience. The participants were thirteen male and female former athletes representing a number of different sports. Using a purposeful, snowball sampling technique, participants were identified and interviews were conducted. The thematic structure derived from the interviews contained five major themes, which emerged within the ground, “Love of Sports.” They included: “Your Life is Never the Same: Now, Before, & After;” “Something is Ripped from You: Loss of Identity, Strength, & Other People;” “It Still Hurts: Pain, Anger, Depression, & Fear;” “It Wasn‟t Really My Choice: Denial & False Hope;” and “Nobody Else Knows What You‟re Going Through: Difficult Relationships, Misunderstandings, & Unconditional Support.” The results extend the current research in sport injury and career transition and suggest that a career-ending injury is one of the most difficult transition experiences an athlete can face. For the participants in this study their final injury was a life altering experience that represented a critical turning point in their lives. The pervasiveness of their pain extended far beyond the initial injury and was only one of the long-lasting effects of their career-ending experience.

Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) suggested that 10,000 hours of deliberate practice is needed to attain expertise. Consequently, it would be expected that expert soccer players who possess a high level of proficiency in intercepting a ball with their feet would demonstrate superior anticipation timing performance with the feet compared to novices who lack training. On the other hand, Keele, Ivry, and Porkorny (1987), and Studenka and Zelaznik (2008) provided support for a centrally controlled process for timed movements. If true, it would be expected that experts’ anticipation timing performance would be superior to novices’ regardless of the effector used. The purpose of this study was to examine the anticipation timing performance of expert soccer players with that of novices using the preferred and non-preferred feet and hands. Participants were required to perform a simple movement task replicating the reception of a pass in soccer by intercepting the apparent motion of a series of lights on a Bassin anticipation timer using the preferred and non-preferred hands and feet. Participants completed 60 trials total at three different velocities (4-mph, 5-mph, & 6- mph). Dependent variables were constant error (CE) and variable error (VE). For CE a Group x Limb interaction (p = .022) revealed that experts were more accurate in the foot condition than the novices. This interaction also revealed that experts performed similarly in both the foot and the hand conditions suggesting that experts were able to increase the accuracy of performance with the feet to more closely match that of the hands due to the effects of deliberate practice. For VE a Main Effect for Group (p = .002) revealed that Experts were less variable in anticipation timing performance than novices. This supports the notion of a central timing mechanism for variability. Results suggest that variability in anticipation timing performance is influenced by a common central timing process, while accuracy is dependent upon effector specific training.

PURPOSE: To provide 1) a description of the levels of physical activity and social support for exercise for fraternity and sorority members; 2) a comparison of gender differences in physical activity levels among fraternity and sorority members; and 3) to determine a relationship between levels social support for exercise and physical activity in fraternity and sorority members. METHODS: Three hundred thirty-seven members of fraternities and sororities completed an online survey (74.8% female). The online survey included the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), the Social Support for Exercise Survey, and demographic questions. RESULTS: According to the IPAQ, the majority of fraternity and sorority members (90%) were engaged in moderate or high volumes of activity. However, the majority of members (62.3%) were not vigorously active 3 days per week for at least 20 minutes per session. Males were significantly more likely to report being active than females (p < 0.001). There were moderate correlations between social support for exercise from friends and the combination of moderate and vigorous activity (0.42); moderate activity (0.41); and vigorous activity (0.44). Social support for exercise from friends and gender predicted approximately 20% of the variance in moderate and vigorous physical activity. DISCUSSION: Approximately 40% of fraternity and sorority members reported engaging in vigorous activity. Fraternity members were more likely to report participation in vigorous activity than sorority members. Social support for exercise from friends was higher in students with structured exercise including moderate and vigorous activity. All significant correlations between social support for exercise and physical activity variables were positive. The strongest predictors of vigorous exercise were social support from friends and gender.

The purpose of this study was to determine if active and sedentary individuals differed in terms the effects of self-controlled feedback on the learning of a movement skill. The task consisted of a blindfolded beanbag toss using the non-preferred arm. Participants were prescreened according to their physical activity level using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Craig et al., 2003). An equal number of active (A) and sedentary (S) participants were assigned to self-control (SC) and yoked (Y) feedback conditions, creating four groups: Self-Control Active; Self-Control Sedentary; Yoked Active; and Yoked Sedentary. SC condition participants were provided feedback whenever they requested it, while Y condition participants received feedback according to the schedule created by a SC counterpart to whom they were yoked. The SC condition was more accurate than the Y condition during acquisition and transfer phases. The A condition was more accurate than the S condition during all phases of the experiment. Results of a post-experimental questionnaire indicated that participants in the SC condition asked for feedback mostly after what they perceived to be “good” trials. Participants in the Y condition indicated that they would have preferred to receive feedback after “good” trials. This study provided further support for the advantages of self-controlled feedback when learning motor skills, additionally showing benefits for both active and sedentary individuals. In addition, the results suggested that the provision of experimenter-controlled feedback (i.e., in the Y condition) to sedentary learners degraded immediate performance. While this effect was not present during assessment of learning, it may have implications regarding the motivation of sedentary individuals to engage in practice when learning movement skills.