PURPOSE: To compare vertical jump height and power and sprint time in African- American and Caucasian college-aged males, to compare isokinetic knee extension and flexion torques between the two groups, and to examine correlations between these variables. METHODS: The participants were fifty recreationally active, college-aged males (23 African-American and 27 Caucasian). Physical activity was assessed using the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) Physical Activity module, body composition was determined using the Bod Pod, and anthropometric measures (height, weight, and thigh circumference) were taken. Subjects performed a 100-m sprint on an outdoor track and a countermovement vertical jump. Vertical jump power was calculated using both the Lewis and Sayers equations. Isokinetic knee extension and flexion testing were performed on a Biodex System 3 at angular velocities of 60, 120, 210, 300, and 400 degrees per second. Peak torques and relative torques (using torque generated at 60 degrees per second as the reference) were used in data analysis. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between African-Americans and Caucasians in anthropometric variables, physical activity, wind velocity measured during the 100-m dash, or isokinetic extension and flexion peak and relative torques. When controlling for body fat percentage, there were significant differences between the two groups with African- Americans having greater jump heights (p<.001), greater vertical jump power using the Sayers equation (p<.05), and faster 100-m sprint times (p<.05). In the entire sample, vertical jump height significantly correlated with 100-m sprint time (r = -.769, p<.001). Vertical jump power using both equations significantly correlated with isokinetic knee extension peak torque at all angular velocities and with knee flexion at 120, 300 and 400 degrees per second. There were no significant correlations between 100-m sprint times and isokinetic knee extension and flexion variables. CONCLUSION: African- Americans performed better than Caucasians in the vertical jump and 100-m dash but not in isokinetic knee flexion and extension testing. However, African-Americans showed a trend towards greater peak torques at high angular velocities indicative of faster speeds of muscle contraction.

The purpose of this study was to examine African-American Division I football players’ perceptions of their ability to balance their roles as “students” and “athletes”. Three major questions were addressed: Can student-athletes balance both the roles of “student” and “athlete”? If so, how are they able to do so? And, are they truly successful at it? Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with eight African-American football players at a Division I university. Six themes emerged which included: (a) parental emphasis on education and sport; (b) “childhood dreams” versus sport realities; (c) reality check; (d) perceptions of student-athletes; (e) pressure to become a “man”; and (f) being a student-athlete. Future directions for research, sport psychology consultants and athletic department staff are also given.

The purpose of this study was to determine if active and sedentary individuals differed in terms the effects of self-controlled feedback on the learning of a movement skill. The task consisted of a blindfolded beanbag toss using the non-preferred arm. Participants were prescreened according to their physical activity level using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Craig et al., 2003). An equal number of active (A) and sedentary (S) participants were assigned to self-control (SC) and yoked (Y) feedback conditions, creating four groups: Self-Control Active; Self-Control Sedentary; Yoked Active; and Yoked Sedentary. SC condition participants were provided feedback whenever they requested it, while Y condition participants received feedback according to the schedule created by a SC counterpart to whom they were yoked. The SC condition was more accurate than the Y condition during acquisition and transfer phases. The A condition was more accurate than the S condition during all phases of the experiment. Results of a post-experimental questionnaire indicated that participants in the SC condition asked for feedback mostly after what they perceived to be “good” trials. Participants in the Y condition indicated that they would have preferred to receive feedback after “good” trials. This study provided further support for the advantages of self-controlled feedback when learning motor skills, additionally showing benefits for both active and sedentary individuals. In addition, the results suggested that the provision of experimenter-controlled feedback (i.e., in the Y condition) to sedentary learners degraded immediate performance. While this effect was not present during assessment of learning, it may have implications regarding the motivation of sedentary individuals to engage in practice when learning movement skills.

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The overall aim of the research was to determine whether the hamstring:quadriceps strength ratio (HQR) played an important role in postural control and effects of different training modes on the HQR and its relationship with the ability to control force and posture in older adults. This thesis reports the outcomes of two related studies. Study One was a cross-sectional study aiming to determine the age-related changes in the knee flexor (KF) and knee extensor (KE) isometric muscle strength ratio and the relationship between the HQR and measured variables in the control of posture in young (YG, 18- 30yrs), middle-aged (MG, 40-50yrs) and older adults (OG, 60-77yrs). Study Two was a training study for older adults aiming to determine the effects of two training programs, home-based-exercise (HBE) and electromyostimulation-superimposed-over-voluntarycontractions (EV), on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), HQR, muscle steadiness (ST) and postural control.Study One indicated that the MVC of the KF and KE decreased at different rates, 34.7% (~1.4 N.m/year) between MG and OG and 35.6% (~1.5 N.m/year) from YG to OG, respectively, and HQR was significantly higher in MG than OG (p<0.05). MG showed a better control of posture than the OG in anterior-posterior and planar directions. Moderate negative correlations were found between HQR and stabilogram parameters (r=-0.29, p=0.05). The intervention study indicated that MVC of the KE increased in both groups (p<0.01), and that of the KF increased in the EV group (p<0.001), however, the HQR did not change in either group, after six weeks of training. The HBE was effective in improving KE isometric ST and the EV improved KF isometric ST which was a novel finding (p<0.05). The stabilogram parameters changed significantly after training in HBE and EV whilst no differences were found between groups. The traininginduced changes in MVC were not correlated with either ST or postural control. It was iv found that the knee joint stability and the control of force and posture were maintained until the sixth decade of life. The EV training program was effective in improving muscle strength and control of force and posture for older adults. However, the mechanisms responsible for the increased MVC did not appear to be shared by those for the improved control of force.These findings suggest that the HQR may be a valid indicator in assessment of postural control. Further research that focuses on improvement of HQR and its relation to postural control is needed to validate this implication of HQR. No clear trend on the fluctuation of force and muscle contraction intensity relationship was observed. Therefore, to improve the ability in controlling muscle force, more attention should be given to the skill learning rather than maximum strength. No difference was found in the pre to post training changes in controlling upright position between the two types of training examined in this project. Future investigations examining the training effects on postural control should involve unstable stance positions and perturbed balance. Future research should also include the recording of EMG data for analysis of the neural mechanisms responsible for the age-related changes and training effects in control of force and posture, and increased duration of the training program.

The resource-based view of the firm (RBV) as well as the sustained competitive advantage model developed by Barney (1991) offer an approach to examining available resources and how those resources affect an organization's success and or effectiveness. Previous studies in sport management literature examined secondary data in an attempt to better understand sustained competitive advantage. This study takes the next step through interviews with program stakeholders as well as using secondary data to better understand how and why sustained competitive advantage exists in high school football. The study helps explore not only what resources influence success, but also to what extent the different resources shape program success according to the stakeholders. Eight emerging concepts were developed as resources potentially influencing program success. The resources are examined in relation to Barney's (1991) four tenets of sustained competitive advantage (value, rareness, imperfect imitability, and non-substitutability). Furthermore, the study compares three different winning programs and their use of the eight resources. While none of the identified resources satisfy all four of Barney's (1991) requirements, an argument can be made that the resources bundled together as one resource, organizational culture, lead to the programs' continued success. The results encourage further investigation of competitive sport using the RBV and sustained competitive advantage frameworks. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / November 1, 2004. / High School Sport, Sustained Competitive Advantage, Organizational Culture, Resource-Based View, Competitive Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Patricia Yancey Martin, Outside Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The current study is based on a review of Underwood, Bond, and Baer (2001) and Sutton, McDonald, Milne, and Cimperman (1997), which provide basic concepts of managerial factors affecting team identification. It is proposed that managerial factors can be susceptible to manipulation by managers in order to create and sustain fans' identification with a professional sport team. This study is first attempt to provide a comprehensive conceptual framework of managerial factors and to conduct an empirical analysis. The conceptual model of managerial factors affecting team identification proposed that the managerial factors were represented by twelve sub-dimensions, categorized into five primary dimensions: (1) organization, (2) attractive, (3) affiliation, (4) media, and (5) tradition. The purpose of the present study is to test whether managerial factors may indeed foster team identification. More specifically, the aim of the study is to develop a valid and reliable scale to measure managerial factors. Data were collected from college students of a large, public university located in the southeastern region of the United States (N= 578); confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on a split sample (Sample1= 289, Sample 2= 289) to examine five constructs of managerial factors. Based on the results of empirical tests, five managerial factors (organization, performance, affiliation, media, and tradition) with nine sub-dimensions emerged from the analysis and showed a good fit of the model. The analysis of the study evidences that reliability and validity were provided for the measurement. The analysis of structural model indicated that team identification was directly influenced by managerial factors. The findings of this study have contributions to not only an extension of the knowledge of team identification to the area of sport fans research, but also to practical applications for practitioners in sport industry. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / June 18, 2007. / Fan Behavior, Spectator Sport, Managerial Factors, Team Identification, Sport Marketing, Sport Consumer Behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Harry Kwon, Committee Member.

This study sought to examine the influence of wearing pedometers on activity levels, attitudes towards activity, and knowledge of physical activity. The participants were members of three intact 4th-grade Physical Education classes from three elementary schools in the Calhoun County School District, Calhoun County, Alabama. A simplified and modified version of the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT; McKenzie, Sallis, & Nader, 1991) was used to gather information regarding the student's physical activity levels during physical education classes. A questionnaire assessed affective traits and knowledge of physical activity. The TPB Questionnaire was designed to elicit information on: intentions, attitude, and perceived behavioral control as they relate to physical activity. The added knowledge variable consisted of two questions that related the ideas of physical activity levels and health benefits. The treatment consisted of wearing pedometers either during physical education class only or all day long. There was also a Control Group that did not wear any pedometers at all. The four week treatment period was preceded by two weeks of gathering baseline data and two weeks of post treatment observation. There were no significant differences in the physical activity levels of students wearing pedometers when compared to students without pedometers. A MANOVA revealed main effects indicating that the group wearing the pedometers all day had a significant change in perceived behavioral control scores and knowledge scores. The results are noteworthy because perceptions of behavioral control and fitness knowledge are associated with higher levels of physical activity. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2006. / February 23, 2006. / Physical Activity, Physical Education, Pedometer / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gershon Tenenbaum, Outside Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Kristi Walsdorf, Committee Member.

The importance of brand equity to a firm has been well-documented by previous literature. Brands with high equity allow a firm to charge a premium price as well as garner a larger market share in relation to competitors (Simon & Sullivan, 1993). From the consumer's perspective, previous research has failed to explain precisely how consumers perceive and become loyal to specific brands. Most of the scholarly work in this area has been conceptual in nature. Therefore, this study established a consumer-based brand equity model based on Keller's (2003) brand equity pyramid that explains how consumer perceptions influence brand resonance. The consumer-based brand equity scale was comprised of five constructs related to brand equity: brand awareness, brand associations, brand superiority, brand affect, and brand resonance. This dissertation represents one of the first attempts to operationalize Keller's pyramid. The measurement items were established based upon an extensive review of the literature and in the case of brand associations, by examining data collected from consumers by means of a qualitative elicitation. A pilot test in both the goods and services context (n = 288; n = 231) provided initial validation of the measurement items constructed in the item generation stage. More specifically, results from an exploratory factor analysis showed that brand associations was comprised of two dimensions in the goods context (attributes and benefits) and three dimensions in the services context (attributes, benefits, and service personnel). In both contexts, brand resonance was found to be comprised of two dimensions: sense of community and active engagement. Furthermore, minor item modifications were made to the other constructs of interest (brand awareness, brand superiority, brand affect) to ensure the reliability and validity of the measures. The main study included data collected from a general consumer sample (n = 787) in a mid-sized southeastern community in order to validate the consumer-based brand equity model. A two-step confirmatory factor analysis approach confirmed the adequate fit of the measurement model to the observed data in both the goods and services context. Furthermore, the results from an examination of the structural model via structural equation modeling confirmed a significant relationship between brand awareness and brand associations as posited by previous research. Brand associations were found to have a significant impact on a consumer's cognitive evaluation (brand superiority) and affective response (brand affect) to focal brands in both the goods and services context. Interestingly, brand associations were found to have an indirect relationship with consumers' behavioral intentions (brand resonance) via brand superiority and brand affect. This finding revealed that two attitudinal constructs (brand superiority and brand affect) played a crucial role in the brand association-brand resonance relationship. The results of the current study represent one of the initial steps in operationalizing Keller's (2003) consumer-based brand equity model. Managers can utilize the consumer-based brand equity model as a "measuring stick" to track the progress of their brand-building efforts. It illustrates the importance of not only brand associations but also accounting for consumers' cognitive evaluations and affective responses to the thoughts they hold on behalf of the brand. Ultimately, these two attitudinal constructs play an important role in influencing consumers' behavioral intentions toward a brand. Future research needs to test the consumer-based brand equity model with different brands in different settings to further advance our knowledge of how brands resonate with consumers. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / May 28, 2010. / Brand Affect, Brand, Brand Equity, Brand Resonance / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; J. Joseph Cronin, Jr., University Representative; Steven McClung, Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to assess the needs of sport consumers with disabilities attending live sporting events. Three research questions guided this exploratory study. The first research question sought to identify the physical and service needs of sport consumers with mobility impairments attending a live sporting event. The second research question investigated whether the needs of sport consumers with mobility impairments attending a live sporting event were being met. The third research question examined what could be done differently by a service provider in order to enhance the experience of a consumer with a mobility impairment. A grounded theory methodology was used in order to develop an understanding of the needs of people with disabilities in stadia. Through the use of focus group and in-depth interviews with six male sport consumers with mobility impairments, as well as observations at sports venues and in-depth interviews with facility personnel, an understanding of the needs of people with disabilities attending live sporting events emerged. The findings from the study suggest that it is the interaction of the physical and service needs which combine to produce a service experience that meets the needs of patrons with mobility impairments. Furthermore, the set of needs can be conceptualized as a hierarchy whereby certain needs become salient at different stages of the service delivery. The findings also indicate that a particular need may become salient when it is not met. Based on the findings of this study, venue managers should focus their efforts on identifying the salience of certain needs at different stages of the service experience in order to meet the physical and service needs of patrons with mobility impairments attending live sporting events. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 17, 2006. / Spectator, Disability, Americans with Disabilities Act, Stadium / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joseph Cronin, Outside Committee Member; Donna Fletcher, Committee Member; Linda Schrader, Committee Member.