As ligas a base de Níquel são frequentemente utilizadas na indústria do petróleo devido à elevada resistência mecânica e excelente resistência à corrosão. Neste cenário, a utilização da soldagem como etapa na fabricação de dutos rígidos de grande comprimento é inevitável. Assim, chapas da liga Inconel 625® foram unidas através do processo Friction Stir Welding (FSW). A soldagem foi executada com uma ferramenta de nitreto cúbico de boro policristalino e o inerente desta ferramenta foi analisado. Em um primeiro momento, na seleção de parâmetros de processo, diversas condições de processo foram analisadas para escolha da melhor solda. Após esta etapa, novas juntas soldadas foram produzidas com o parâmetro de processo adequado (velocidade de rotação da ferramenta de 200 rpm e velocidade de avanço de 1 mm/s). A caracterização da superfície de topo da solda foi realizada através da microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microdureza e ensaios de dobramento. Defeitos superficiais foram inspecionados com líquidos penetrantes. Além disso, os estados de tensões residuais foram obtidos com a difração de raios-X. Ainda, a resistência à corrosão localizada foi estudada com o ensaio de imersão em cloreto férrico e a determinação da temperatura crítica de pite (conhecida como CPT) Por fim, a susceptibilidade à corrosão intergranular foi avaliada com o ensaio Streicher Test. O processo de soldagem promoveu o refino de grão e o aumento de dureza na solda. As micrografias do metal de base (MB) mostraram carbonetos do tipo MC, M6C, M23C6. Por outro lado, a melhor junta soldada apresentou uma microestrutura livre de defeitos, homogênea, onde não foram percebidos carbonetos do tipo M6C, M23C6 nos contornos de grão, foi aprovada nos ensaios de dobramento, líquidos penetrantes e imersão em FeCl3. Entretanto, ocorreu o um desgaste da ferramenta, mas reduzido e aceitável para esta solda. Tensões residuais longitudinais trativas da ordem de 50 MPa foram observadas na zona de mistura. Considerando o valor médio, o MB alcançou uma CPT de 77 °C, enquanto no centro da solda a CPT foi de 86°C. A taxa de corrosão média alcançada após o ensaio de corrosão intergranular foi de 0,4406 mm/ano, valor que sugere uma boa qualidade da solda. / Nickel based alloys are often used in the oil and gas industry due to their great mechanical strenght as well as excelent corrosion resistance. In this scenario, welding as manufacturing step for long lenght rigid tubes is inevitable. Therefore, Inconel 625® sheets were joined by Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The welding was performed with a Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (pcBN) tool and the unavoidable tool wear was verified. At first, in the process parameter development step, different process conditions were analyzed for choosing the best welded joint. Afterwards, new welded joints were produced with the suitable process parameter (tool rotational speed of 200 rpm and welding speed of 1 mm/s). Top surface characterization of friction-stir-welded Inconel 625 was carried out by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, microhardness and bending tests. Surface defects were verified by dye penetrant inspection (DPI). In addition, residual stress states were obtained by X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, localized corrosion resistance was studied by the immersion test in FeCl3 and the critical pitting temperature (CPT) determination. Finally, the susceptibility to intergranular corrosion was evaluated by Streicher Test. FSW process promoted grain refining as well as increased microhardness in the joint Base material micrographs showed different carbides as MC, M6C, M23C6. On the other hand, the best joint presented a sounds weld without defetcs, homogeneous microstructure, grain boundaries free of M6C, M23C6 carbides, approved in bending tests, DPI and the immersion test. However, a tool wear was also noted, but reduced and acceptable for this weld. Tensile longitudinal residual stresses of 50 MPa were observed in the stir zone. As an avarage, the base material CPT was 77 °C, while the CPT was 86 °C at the weld center. The mean corrosion rate after intergranular corrosion test was 0.4406 mm/year, a value which suggests a good weld quality.

Les travaux de cette thèse concernent le développement d’un modèle par éléments discrets du comportement thermo-mécanique d’un alliage d’aluminium et de son évolution microstructurale lorsqu’il est soumis à des conditions de grandes déformations et/ou de grandes vitesses de déformation (soudage par friction-malaxageou FSW). Le procédé de « soudage par friction malaxage » (Friction Stir Welding,FSW) est un procédé de soudage récent, inventé en 1991 par « The Welding Institute (TWI) ». Ce procédé se distingue des autres par sa capacité à souder la matière à l’état visqueux, sans atteindre le point de fusion. Le principe est relativement simple et comparable à une opération de fraisage, si ce n’est que l’outil coupant est remplacé par un outil malaxant composé d’un pion et d’un épaulement. Ce procédé revêt un fort intérêt pour l’industrie aéronautique, car il offre la possibilité de souder des alliages d’aluminium des séries 2XXX et 7XXX, réputés difficiles à souder par d’autres procédés.Le soudage par friction-malaxage étant un procédé récent, il demeure encore un sujet de recherche actif, pour mieux appréhender certains points comme l’écoulement de la matière, l’influence des paramètres du procédé (vitesse de rotation, forme de l’outil, ...)et la modification de la microstructure. Ce dernier point est particulièrement important pour les alliages à durcissement structural comme ceux des séries 2XXX et 7XXX. Pour ces alliages d’aluminium, les propriétés mécaniques dépendent étroitement de leur état de précipitation, lui-même influencé par l’apport de chaleur généré lors du soudage.L’optimisation des paramètres de soudage par rapport aux propriétés mécaniques passe obligatoirement par la prédiction de l’état de la précipitation le long du joint soudé. Le travail de la thèse vise à mettre en place des modèles à l’échelle de la microstructure permettant de prévoir la modification des propriétés de la matière liées aux paramètres du procédé. / The work of this thesis concerns the development of a model using the discrete element method, for the thermo-mechanical behavior of an aluminum alloy and its microstructural evolution when exposed to conditions of large deformations and/or high deformation rates (Friction StirWelding or FSW). Friction stir welding is a recent welding process invented in 1991 by "The welding Institute" (TWI). This process is different from the others by its ability to weld material in the viscous state, without reaching the melting point. The principle is relatively simple and similar to a milling process except that the cutting tool is replaced by a rotary tool composed of a pin and a shoulder. This process is of great interest in the aircraft industry because it offers the possibility to weld aluminum alloys 2XXX and 7XXX series, known to be difficult to weld by other processes. Since friction stir welding is a recent process, it still remains a subject of active research, to better understand certain issues such as material flow, influence of process parameters (rotation speed, tool shape, ...) and the modification of the microstructure. This last point is particularly important for structural hardening alloys such as those of the 2XXX and 7XXX series. For these aluminum alloys, the mechanical properties are highly dependent on their state of precipitation, which is itself influenced by the heat generated during thewelding. The optimization ofwelding parameters in order to obtain good mechanical properties requires the prediction of precipitation state along thewelded joint. Thework of this thesis is to develop required models at the scale of microstructure allowing to predict the modification of material properties related to the process parameters

Orientador: Alberto Luiz Serpa / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T13:16:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ferlin_AmadeuSoares_M.pdf: 11538250 bytes, checksum: df676e0c073182186a89891ff432c041 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Esta dissertação discute aspectos do monitoramento do processo de soldagem por Friction Stir Welding (FSW) de chapas de alumínio utilizando acelerômetros fixados à superfície das chapas. Os sinais adquiridos durante o processo de soldagem foram processados utilizando dois métodos diferentes - a Transformada de Fourier de Tempo Curto (STFT) e a Transformada Wavelet - que foram capazes de detectar e localizar falhas criadas através da remoção de material nas chapas. A aplicação destas técnicas nos sinais adquiridos durante o processo de soldagem permitem a identificação de mudanças no comportamento destes sinais através de resultados gráficos contendo informações de frequência e de tempo. Através destas informações é possível determinar o momento em que as mudanças de comportamento ocorreram e, consequentemente, prever as posições correspondentes à ocorrência da falha no respectivo cordão da solda / Abstract: This dissertation discusses aspects of the Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process monitoring of aluminum plates using accelerometers attached to the plates surface. The signals acquired during the welding process were processed using two different methods - Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) and Wavelet Transform - that were able to detect and locate failures created by removing material of the plates. The application of these techniques on the signals acquired during the welding process allows the identification of changes in the signals pattern by graphical results containing frequency and time information. Thus it is possible to determine the moment at which the changes in the behavior occurred and therefore predict the positions corresponding to the occurrence of the failure in the weld line / Mestrado / Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Orientador: Renato Pavanello / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T12:22:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Miyaura_EdsonHaruo_M.pdf: 7225528 bytes, checksum: 18ef99acba609c719adac9b690048969 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Inúmeros trabalhos de pesquisa tem sido feitos em torno de um processo de soldagem por atrito conhecido por FSW, ou Friction Stir Welding. A proposta deste trabalho é determinar o efeito das tensões residuais resultantes de tal processo sobre a propagação de trincas na região próxima à junta soldada. Este efeito é considerado calculando-se fatores de intensidade de tensão residual pelo uso de funções ponderadoras e pelo método de elementos finitos. Técnicas numéricas e equações de taxa de propagação modificadas são empregadas para determinar a vida residual em fadiga de sólidos com trincas que atravessam transversalmente a região da solda. É abordado e aplicado um meio de determinar uma curva de tensão residual longitudinal a partir de uma curva de fatores de intensidade de tensão residual. Finalmente, o ensaio cut compliance é apresentado como uma técnica experimental eficaz na determinação de uma curva de fatores de intensidade de tensão residual. A aplicação de tal método exige o conhecimento prévio ou o cálculo de funções de influência. Demonstra-se que o método de elementos finitos é eficaz na determinação de tais funções / Abstract: Numerous research papers have been published on a process known as friction stir welding or FSW. The purpose of this work is to determine the effect of residual stresses resulting from such process on the propagation of a crack near the weld. This effect is taken into account by calculating residual stress intensity factors using weight functions and finite elements. Numerical techniques and crack propagation rate equations are employed to determine residual fatigue life of solids with cracks that traverse across the weld region. A way to determine a longitudinal residual stress curve from a residual stress intensity factor curve is discussed and applied in this work. Finally, the cut compliance method is presented as an effective experimental technique to determine residual stress intensity factor curves. The application of such method requires calculation of influence functions. It is shown that the finite element method is effective in determining those functions / Mestrado / Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was used to perform a Design of Experiment (DOE) to determine the welding parameters effects on yielding consistent mechanical properties across the length of the weld. The travel speed was varied across set forge force and RPM conditions, to find a dataset that will yield consistent mechanical properties independent of the travel speed. Six different welds were completed on two different aluminum panels, the advancing side being Aluminum alloy 2195-T8 at a thickness of .350”, with the retreating side being Aluminum alloy 2219-T851 with a gauge thickness of .360”. A Left-hand Right-hand self-reacting pin tool was used for each weld. The mechanical properties of interest are the Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield Strength, Elasticity and Hardness. The strengths were evaluated by tensile testing, with the Elasticity being measure post break. Specimens were then polished where macrograph and micrograph analysis was completed. Micro-hardness testing was then completed on the weld nuggets.

Le friction stir welding (FSW) est un procédé de soudage inventé en 1991 par l’institut de soudure anglais, le TWI. Celui-ci suscite un vif intérêt de la part de l’industrie aéronautique par sa capacité de souder les alliages d’aluminium de la série 2XXX et 7XXX, à durcissement structural, réputés pratiquement insoudables. Ce procédé étant relativement récent, il fait encore sujet de recherches actives. Ce travail a pour objectif de prévoir le profil de dureté d’un joint soudé par FSW d’un alliage d’aluminium, le 2024 T3. Cet alliage étant à durcissement structural, il est nécessaire de prévoir l’influence de la température sur l’évolution de la précipitation au cours du procédé pour en déduire sa limite d’élasticité. L’estimation du champ de température durant le régime stationnaire du procédé s’appuie sur des travaux internes au centre SMS. La prévision de la précipitation au cours du soudage est effectuée à l’aide de deux modèles. Le premier modèle, à base d’équivalence temps–températures, est une proposition d’extension aux alliages d’aluminium sous-revenu du modèle de Myhr & Grong (1991) établi dans le cas des alliages d’aluminium sur-revenu. Le deuxième modèle s’appuie sur une discrétisation de la distribution des rayons des précipités, suivant le schéma numérique de Kampmann et Wagner (1983), pour calculer ensuite son évolution. Bien que le premier modèle permette de prévoir l’évolution de la dureté au cours de recuits isothermes, les profils de dureté simulés ne sont pas en accord avec les profils expérimentaux. Seul le deuxième modèle permet une prévision raisonnable de la microstructure, en accord avec les mesures réalisées dans la thèse de Genevois (2004), et des profils de dureté proches des résultats expérimentaux. Finalement, une expression analytique en fonction des paramètres microstructuraux du flux de chaleur lors d’un essai de calorimétrie différentielle (DSC) a été établie. Celle-ci donne la possibilité de simuler un essai de DSC, et de vérifier ainsi la cohérence entre les grandeurs thermodynamiques et cinétiques introduites dans le deuxième modèle de précipitation. / Friction stir welding (FSW) is a recent welding process invented by The Welding Institute (TWI). It is particularly interesting for the aeronautical sector due to its capacity to weld 2XXX and 7XXX age-hardening aluminium alloys, which were previously considered unweldable. This relatively new process is currently the subject of active research. This work aims to simulate the hardness profile of an AA2024-T3 friction stir weld. AA2024-T3 is an age hardening aluminium alloy, so it is necessary to predict the effect of temperature on the evolution of precipitation during the process to deduce its yield strength. An estimation of the temperature field during the stationary regime relies on internal work of the SMS centre. Precipitate evolution during welding is simulated using two models. The first one, based on the isokinetic strength, is an extension to under-aged aluminium alloys of the Myhr & Grong model (1991) established for the overaged aluminium alloy. The second one, based on the Kampmann and Wagner (1983) numerical framework discretizes the distribution of the precipitate radius to deduce its evolution. Though the first model can predict the hardness evolution during isothermal treatments, the simulated profiles do not match the experimental ones. Only the second one can predict reasonably well the microstructures in agreement with the observations described in the thesis of Genevois (2004) and also with hardness profiles close to the experimental ones. An analytical expression for the heat flux during a differential scanning calorimetry experiment has been established as a function of microstructural parameters. This gives one the possibility to simulate a DSC experiment and to validate the coherency between thermodynamical and kinetic quantities, as introduced in the second precipitation model.

Friction Stir Processing (FSP) has the potential for locally enhancing the properties of Al-Si alloy castings, for demanding applications within the automotive industry. In this thesis, the effect of FSP has been examined on three different cast Al-Si alloys:i) A Hypoeutectic Al-8.9wt%Si Alloyii) A Hypereutectic Al-12.1wt%Si Alloyiii) A Hypereutectic Al-12.1wt%Si-2.4wt%Ni AlloyThe influence of different processing parameters has been investigated at a fundamental level. Image analysis of particle size distributions and growth method of tessellation were used to quantify the level of particle refinement and the homogeneity of the second phase spatial distribution. Stop-action experiments were also carried out, to allow the microstructural changes around the tool during FSP to be studied. Two computer models have been explored, in order to predict the temperature distribution and the material flow behaviour. Furthermore, the stability of the microstructure of the friction stir processed material was studied after being heat treated at elevated temperatures. The changes in particle size and grain structure were examined, hardness measurements were taken across the PZ, and tensile testing were carried out at room and elevated temperatures.After FSP, the microstructure of the cast Al-Si alloys was greatly refined. However, differences in microstructure have been observed throughout the PZ, which tended to be better refined and distributed on the advancing side, than the retreating side of the PZ. Changing the processing parameters also influenced the size and spatial distribution of the second phase particles. By studying the changes in microstructure around the tool from the stop-action experiments, and comparing the results to the thermal distribution and material flow behaviour predicted by the computer models, it has been shown that the flow stress, pitch, and temperature of processing, all needed to be considered, when determining the effects that FSP have on the microstructure. FSP caused very little changes to the hardness of the material, while tensile properties were greatly improved, due to the elimination of porosity and refinement of large flawed particles. In terms of the stability of the microstructure after FSP, particle coarsening and abnormal grain growth has been observed during high temperatures heat treatment. Furthermore, the Al2Cu phase was found to dissolve into solid solution at elevated temperatures, so GPZs and solute clustering can then develop within the alloy during natural ageing.

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a well recognised method for joining aluminium alloys and other engineering materials at a temperature below their melting point. However, the microstructure of the alloys may be modified during the welding process due to frictional heat and severe plastic deformation. In this study, the microstructures of friction stir welded AA5754-H111 and AA5083-O aluminium alloys have been investigated using optical microscopy, transmission and scanning electron microscopy equipped with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) facilities. Typical weld zones introduced by FSW were observed. Further, a joint line remnant flaw (JLR) within the thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ) of the welds was also revealed. The formation of the JLR is attributed to dispersion of the magnesium rich oxides within the joining line.The effect of the modified alloy microstructure on the corrosion behaviour of the welds has been investigated by corrosion susceptibility testing and ex-situ SEM examination. Both parent alloys and welds showed good exfoliation and intergranular corrosion resistance (IGC). However, severe localized corrosion was observed at joint line remnant and the weld root.Reduced hardness was recorded in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of AA5754-H111 aluminium alloy weldment. This is attributed to the heat generated during welding that led to grain coarsening. In contrast, slightly increased hardness was recorded within the TMAZ. This was related to the grain refinement as a result of the recrystallization process that took place due to the effect of the thermal cycle and the plastic deformation. Little hardness change was recorded within AA5083-O aluminium alloy weldment. This was attributed to the effect of the alloy temper condition.Thermal simulation of the service environment of the friction stir welded alloys was conducted to assess the resistance to sensitization of welds. After exposure of the welded AA5754 and AA5083 alloys at 50, 70 and 170°C for prolonged time, the resistance of the AA5083 alloy weld to the IGC drastically decreased owing to the precipitation of magnesium rich particles known as β-phase at the grain boundaries. On the contrary, the resistance of the AA5754 alloy weld to IGC remained after the thermal exposure. Thus, the level of Mg content in Al-Mg alloys plays an important role in determining the corrosion characteristics of the alloys. The precipitation of Mg rich particles (β-phase) on the grain boundary is the determining factor for the resistance of the AA5xxx alloys to IGC owing to the difference in the electrode potentials between the β-phase and the grain interior, which leads to the generation of microgalvanic cells and selective dissolution of the grain boundary.

Corrosion Protection and Microstructure of Dissimilar Materials. A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Uyime, Donatus on the 30th of July, 2015.Investigations on the micro- and macro-galvanic corrosion mechanisms in un-coupled AA2024-T3 alloys, AA2024-T3 coupled with mild steel (with and without the influence of cadmium and under varying solution temperatures), dissimilar friction stir welds of AA5083-O and AA6082-T6 alloys and a friction stir welded AA7018 alloy have been carried out. Selected methods of preventing and / or minimising the investigated corrosion phenomena were also investigated. The investigation of the corrosion behaviour of the uncoupled AA2024-T3 alloy revealed that there are two distinct stages of polarization during the galvanostatic polarization of AA2024T3 alloy in de-aerated 3.5% NaCl solution. From the first stage, the relationships between the pitting incubation time, pitting potential and applied current density for AA2024T3 alloy in the de-aerated condition were established. Whilst studying the in situ corrosion phenomena on the uncoupled AA2024-T3 alloy using the scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET),three distinct stages in the variation of the recorded current density values with time were revealed. Attempts were made to correlate these stages with the corrosion behaviour of the alloy. The study of the galvanic interactions between AA2024-T3 and mild steel revealed that AA2024-T3 is anodic to mild steel at room temperature, but polarity reversal of the couple starts (from a temperature as low as 35 oC upwards) when the couple is introduced into the solution above ambient temperature. Importantly, AA2024-T3 is clearly cathodic to mild steel at 60 oC, although with very low measured galvanic current values. Cadmium coating (at ambient temperature) on the mild steel reduced the galvanic corrosion of the couple by as much as 20 µA/cm2 because of the formation of a CdO/Cd(OH)2 layer on mild steel. In the study of the dissimilar friction stir welds of AA5083-O and AA6082-T6 alloys, it was observed that material flows (pushes but does not mix) more from the advancing side into the retreating side and that the mixture of materials is far from complete. Two welding speeds were compared; the welding speeds have no clear influence on the microhardness, but affected the mixing proportions in the flow arm and in the nugget stem. The faster welding speed resulted in increased susceptibility to corrosion because of the reduced tool rotation per weld length for heat generation and the mixing of materials. The heat affected zones of both alloys and the transition regions between the AA5083-O alloy and the AA6082-T6 alloy rich zones have been identified to be the regions that are most susceptible to corrosion. Anodizing the weld in order to minimise corrosion showed that the AA5083-O alloy rich zones materials, in the weld, oxidizes more during anodizing compared with the AA6082-T6 alloy rich zones. Sputtering deposition prior to anodizing, promotes the formation of a uniform oxide film across the entire weld zones and prevents the boundary dissolution that occurs when the dissimilar weld of AA5083-O and AA6082-T6 alloys is anodized in 4 M H2SO4 solution at 15 V at ambient temperature. The investigation of the corrosion susceptible regions in friction stir welded AA7018 alloy, which was based on the use of ISO 11846 immersion test and the potentiodynamic polarization technique in naturally aerated 3.5 % NaCl solution, revealed intergranular, crystallographic and second phase particle influenced mode of attack. The heat affected zone was found to be the most susceptible to corrosion.

Friction stir welding is an advanced welding process that is being investigated for use in many different industries. One area that has been investigated for its application is in healing critical nuclear reactor components that are developing cracks. However, friction stir welding is a complicated process and it is difficult to predict what the final properties of a set of welding parameters will be. This thesis sets forth a method using finite element analysis and a random forest model to accurately predict hardness in the welding nugget after processing. The finite element analysis code used and ALE formulation that enabled an Eulerian approach to modeling. Hardness is used as the property to estimate because of its relationship to tensile strength and grain size. The input parameters to the random forest model are temperature, cooling rate, strain rate, and RPM. Two welding parameter sets were used to train the model. The method was found to have a high level of accuracy as measured by R^2, but had greater difficulty in predicting the parameter set with higher RPM.