Visitor expenditure can be affected by different economic, socio-demographic and psychological variables. Previous literature have focused on the use of observed tourists and destination characteristics as explanatory variables to explain visitor expenditure, whereas the use of psychological factors has been underresearched. The present study aims to fill in the gap in the existing literature through the exploration of more extensive use of psychological variables. This is accomplished by the use of structural equation modelling (SEM), a methodological approach which seems not to have been applied before in tourism expenditure econometric models. In econometrics expenditure research, Mortazavi (2018) found satisfaction to be an endogenous regressor of expenditure. Hence, the contribution of our model is that it allows for the relationship between visitor satisfaction and visitor expenditure, and vice versa, to be tested simultaneously. Consequently, under this context we may identify the magnitude of one variable impact on another while at the same time accounting for simultaneous relationship between the two paths. The findings of this study go in hand with previous literature and economic theory which have found a positive relationship between visitor satisfaction and visitor expenditure.

The need for online banking technology in the banking industry is important to allow financial institutions to serve their customers worldwide, without having the need to be present in person or face-to-face to benefit from the service. Despite the investment in informational technology and information system infrastructure by Saudi Arabian financial institutions, the Saudi banks have lagged their Western counterparts when it comes to provision of online banking services. Given a relatively recent adoption of online banking in Saudi Arabia, consumer trust in online banking is a critical challenge facing bank managers, warranting further research. The aim of this research is to develop a framework to improve consumer trust toward online banking services and its affect consumer intentions to use the online banking service and e-WOM. The literature included the assessment of relevant theories including social cognitive theory, technology acceptance model and commitment trust theory. These theories formed the basis of formulation of research framework, including development of 12 research hypotheses. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, relationship termination cost, shared value, communication, privacy and demographic factors all have an important role in influencing the extent of trust and the subsequent intention of customers to engage in and use online banking services provided by the financial institutions. When it comes to the literature gap, there remains a relative lack of existence of research on the subject of consumer trust in online banking within Saudi Arabia (Zhou, 2012; Alanezi and Brooks, 2014; AL-Malkawi et al., 2016), which presents a gap in the literature warranting further research. Moreover, most of the prior research on the subject of consumer trust in online banking has concentrated on the information cues such as reputation and information quality (Montazemi and Qahri-Saremi, 2015). This is alongside relatively little attention given to other factors such as perceived usefulness, ease of use, shared value, and privacy/security, which are crucial factors in online banking services (Fatima, 2011; Aloul., 2012; Montazemi and Qahri-Saremi, 2015). Regarding methodology, the positivist research philosophy, deductive approach, survey questionnaire and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques were undertaken. A key rationale for selection of such a methodology is the review of relevant literature, which led to development of research hypotheses that are tested through the survey technique, which is consistent with positivist and deductive research approach. The survey questionnaire request was sent online to 800 research participants (users of online services in Saudi Arabia). Out of these 800, 585 responded (indicating a response rate of an impressive 73%). The response rate was improved through giving regular reminders to the research participants who had not responded to the survey earlier. The findings of this research support the argument that trust in e-bank website play an important role in maintaining long term relationship with customers. Therefore, online banks who deal with their customers in a confidential, transparent and honest manner and ultimately protect the consumers' interests are likely to contribute to greater adoption of online banking by customers in Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, it is also concluded that perceived ease of use, trust in online banking website, trust in technology, relationship termination cost, privacy/security, shared value, and communication have positive and significant effect on customer trust in e-bank website, intention to use online banking, and e-WOM.

Levels of non-resident parenthood in Scotland are substantial. The 2011 Scottish Census indicated 28 per cent of all families with dependent children to be lone parent households. Whilst non-resident parenthood is not synonymous with non-resident fatherhood, 92 per cent of such households were headed by the mother (ONS, 2014). Child well-being in non-resident father households is an issue of concern amongst policy makers and practitioners and both law and policy appear to operate on the principle that the maintenance of non-resident father-child relationships is generally conducive to child well-being. Whilst there is evidence to suggest the well-being of children in non-resident father households is typically poorer than their contemporaries in two natural parent households (Amato and Keith, 1991; Amato, 2005), and indeed evidence to suggest non-resident father involvement may benefit child well-being (Amato and Gilbreth, 1999; Adamsons and Johnson, 2013), the existing research has a number of limitations. Firstly, studies have typically adopted narrow conceptualisations of child well-being. Secondly, few studies have sought to disaggregate the total effects of non-resident fatherhood to consider both those transmitted directly and indirectly via mediating variables. Finally, increasing numbers of non-marital births coupled with evidence suggesting cohabiting relationships to be at an increased risk of breakdown in children’s early years compared to marriages (Greaves and Goodman, 2010), has culminated in increasing levels of early years non-resident fatherhood, an issue which has received less attention in the literature. Using data from the Growing Up in Scotland study this research explores associations between non-resident fatherhood and child well-being and the potential pathways through which such associations may operate. The research conceptualises child well-being as a multi-dimensional construct comprising four key domains: social, emotional and behavioural development, cognitive development, general health and material resources and uses structural equation modelling to consider the extent to which firstly, living in a non-resident father household, and secondly, non-resident father involvement is associated with child well-being directly, or indirectly, via household income, maternal mental health and parenting behaviours. The results show that, relative to two natural parent households, child well-being across each of the four domains is poorer in non-resident father households headed by a lone mother but not in those where the mother has re-partnered. Only one statistically significant direct association was found in the domain of material resources with the results suggesting much of the negative association to be transmitted indirectly via household income and maternal mental health. For those children who were reported as having some form of contact with their father, the results indicate paternal involvement to be indirectly associated with fewer social, emotional and behavioural difficulties via maternal mental health. Finally, consideration of the circumstances and characteristics associated with the maintenance of contact and levels of paternal involvement revealed maternal relationship status to be an important correlate of both contact and involvement whilst parental relationship history and circumstances surrounding the pregnancy were additionally found to be important correlates of contact. This thesis argues that simple dichotomies of father presence / absence can serve to mask the complex network of relationships underlying associations between non-resident fatherhood and child well-being. It also argues that child well-being in non-resident father households would benefit from policies which seek to alleviate financial hardship and support maternal mental health. It suggests that the maintenance of non-resident father-child relationships is potentially beneficial for child well-being and argues that promotion and support of contact and involvement in children’s early years likely requires a targeted approach. It further argues that the role of the non-resident father should be construed broadly to include consideration of support for the wider household in which the child lives.

O preço de um imóvel é definido como um preço hedônico, visto que sua formação é dada através de um conjunto de atributos que consideram, além das características do próprio bem, tais como número de quartos, vagas na garagem, área privativa, entre outros; as características do bairro onde este imóvel está inserido. Existe uma demanda crescente por imóveis localizados em regiões com uso de solo misto, densificadas e com fácil acesso a serviços. Essas características estão fortemente vinculadas ao conceito de caminhabilidade. Juntamente com facilidade de acesso ao transporte público, desenho urbano que favoreça o deslocamento dos pedestres e segurança pública, formam as 6 dimensões da caminhabilidade utilizadas nesse estudo. Bairros com essas características estimulam viagens a pé e estima-se que haja uma valorização imobiliária de seus empreendimentos, com consumidores dispostos a pagar mais por imóveis residenciais localizados em regiões caminháveis. Para testar o impacto da caminhabilidade no valor do preço, foram utilizados modelos de equações estruturais. Eles permitem que conceitos como os de caminhabilidade e segurança pública, que não podem ser diretamente medidos (variáveis latentes), possam ser explicados por medidas observáveis que atuam como formadoras desses conceitos. Os resultados obtidos confirmam a hipótese, com o preço do metro quadrado de imóveis residenciais a venda crescendo conforme aumenta a caminhabilidade. A segurança pública demonstrou ser o fator mais importante na explicação da caminhabilidade e consequentemente na valorização do preço. / Sale price of a property is defined as a hedonic price, since its value is formed by a set of attributes that cover more than just characteristics of the product itself, such as number of rooms, parking spots and private area. There is a growing demand for properties located in areas with mixed land use, densified and with easy access to products and services. These characteristics are strongly linked to the concept of walkability, usually named as walkability dimensions. Neighborhoods with these features encourage commutes by walking and are likely to have a real estate valuation, with consumers willing to pay more for residential properties located in walkable areas. Structural equation models were used to test the impact of walkability on sales price. This methodology allows to quantify concepts as walkability and security, that could not be directly measured (latent variables), by using the observable variables that compose them. The results confirm the hypothesis that increase in walkability will also raise the sales price. Security has proven to be the most important factor in the walkability explanation and consequently in price appreciation.

Residentes de um mesmo contexto urbano podem apresentar padrões distintos de deslocamento. A distinção desses padrões pode estar relacionada às diferenças na percepção acerca da caminhabilidade do entorno. Para estimular mudanças no padrão de deslocamento dos usuários de transporte motorizado é importante compreender como os fatores do ambiente urbano, percebidos por esses usuários, se diferenciam em relação aos usuários de transporte ativo, e a partir disso montar estratégias eficientes para cada público alvo. A partir de uma pesquisa realizada com moradores de bairros da zona leste do município de São Paulo, este trabalho compara os usuários de transporte ativo, coletivo e individual em relação a três questões: (i) os fatores que influenciam a percepção da caminhabilidade (dentre eles a segurança pública), (ii) o impacto da caminhabilidade na satisfação com o bairro e (iii) a relação entre percepção de caminhabilidade, satisfação com o bairro e o impacto nos hábitos de deslocamento ativos (frequência e tempos de viagem semanais) reportados para os três grupos. Para analisar tais relações, foram desenvolvidos modelos de equações estruturais, que permitem testar uma hipótese entre múltiplas variáveis e que diversas variáveis observadas representem conceitos que não podem ser diretamente medidos (variáveis latentes), como a percepção de caminhabilidade e a sensação de segurança pública Os resultados obtidos mostraram a existência de diferenças na percepção do ambiente construído entre usuários de transporte ativo, transporte coletivo e transporte individual motorizado. As diferenças principais foram encontradas entre os usuários de transporte ativo e os usuários de transporte motorizado (coletivo e individual), tanto em relação à percepção do ambiente, quanto em relação à sua influência no comportamento do usuário relativo à viagem. A preocupação com a segurança pública parece ser superestimada por aqueles que não realizam deslocamentos ativos regularmente. Investimentos em segurança pública e na qualidade do ambiente mostram ter um efeito positivo em todos os usuários, tanto no que se refere à satisfação com o bairro quanto à utilização de modos ativos de deslocamento. O impacto da percepção do ambiente na satisfação com o bairro foi maior para os usuários de transporte coletivo e individual. / Residents of a same urban context may present different travel patterns. The distinction of these travel patterns may be related to differences in the perception of the environment walkability. To stimulate changes in the travel pattern of motorized transport users, it is important to understand how the environmental factors perceived by these users differ in relation to the users of active transport, and from that, create efficient strategies for each target public. Based on a survey with residents of neighborhoods in the eastern part of the city of São Paulo, this study compares users of active, public and private transport in relation to three issues: (i) the factors that influence perceived walkability (among them public security) (ii) the impact of walkability on neighborhood satisfaction, and (iii) the relationship between perceived walkability, neighborhood satisfaction, and the impact on active commuting patterns (weekly frequency and travel times) reported for all three groups. To analyze such relationships, structural equation models have been developed, which allow testing a hypothesis among multiple variables and that several observed variables represent concepts that cannot be directly measured (latent variables), such as perceived walkability and sense of public security The results showed the existence of differences in the perception of the built environment between users of active, public and private transport. The main differences were found between users of active and users of motorized transport (public and private), both in relation to the perception of the environment and its influence on travel user behavior. Concern about public safety seems to be overestimated by those who do not regularly commute by active means. Investments in public security and environmental quality have a positive effect on all users, both regarding neighborhood satisfaction and the use of active modes of travel. The impact of perceived environment on neighborhood satisfaction was greater for users of public and individual transport.

This thesis investigated the effects of photographic and text information on respondents' attitudes and willingness-to-pay for a proposed beach protection scheme in the erosion prone Gold Coast region on the east coast of Australia. The research developed two alternative expectancy-value attitude-behaviour models to test residents' attitudes toward relevant targets and behavioural intention, expressed through stated willingness-to-pay, and compared the proposed models with one established attitude-behaviour model. The thesis set out to investigate three central research questions; one question relating to the effects of information on attitudes and willingness-to-pay, and two questions relating to the relationships between attitudes and willingness-to-pay. It was hypothesised that photographs that depicted severe erosion damage would result in more positive attitudes toward, and greater willingness-to-pay for, beach protection than photographs that showed only mild levels of erosion damage. Positive relationships were hypothesised between variables representing attitudes toward beach erosion, attitude toward beach protection, attitude toward paying for beach protection, and willingness-to-pay. Finally, it was hypothesised that the relationships between attitudes and willingness-to-pay could be adequately explained by the proposed attitude-behaviour models. The thesis describes how seven information treatments and eight attitude measurement scales were developed and tested in a pilot experiment before use in a survey of homeowners in the region of interest. Analysis of variance showed that, while respondent's attitude toward beach protection was affected by the information treatments, their willingness-to-pay for the proposed program was insensitive to information. There were no significant effects that could be attributed exclusively to text descriptions of the good but there were significant effects that could be attributed to photographic information treatments. However, none of the effects on attitudes resulted in significant effects on the behavioural intention expressed in stated willingness-to-pay. Analysis of respondents with low previous knowledge of the proposed good revealed more extensive information effects on attitudes, but still not on willingness-to-pay, and this suggests that high levels of previous knowledge in a large proportion of the sample had a moderating effect on attitude change caused by the information treatments. Regression analysis showed that seven of the eight attitude and behaviour variables in the proposed attitude-behaviour model were significant predictors of willingness-to-pay. In the final phase of the analysis, goodness-of-fit indices, estimated using Structural Equation Modelling, indicated a good fit between the data and the attitude-behaviour models tested. Standardised coefficients on the model indicated that perceived behavioural control, expected utility of outcomes, and subjective norms all had strong direct relationships with stated willingness-to-pay, and strong indirect relationships on willingness-to-pay via attitudes toward payment. These results are consistent with the relationships proposed in attitude-behaviour models and the moderating effects of these variables explain why significant information treatment effects were observed on attitude to beach protection but not on willingness-to-pay. This research showed that respondent's willingness-to-pay in a contingent valuation experiment is quite insensitive to photographic treatments when previous knowledge is high and that costly and time consuming testing procedures, recommended by authorities, may not be necessary under these conditions. It also demonstrated that measures of attitude, consistent with an attitude-behaviour model, can be collected easily in a contingent valuation study and can contribute to understanding of participant responses and to identification of protest responses.

The left-right concept is considered to facilitate communication and orientation in the political world. It has a long tradition in European politics due to its capacity to absorb different associations over time. However, this dynamic nature of the concept requires periodical reassessments in order to assure that a common conceptualisation endures. This dissertation focuses on reassign what individual left-right orientation means. Usually, this is measured by asking people to place themselves on a scale labelled ‘left’ and ‘right’ at its endpoints. The first empirical analysis of this dissertation shows that this measure is comparable across groups and countries. Thereafter, the relationship between an individual’s issue preference and left-right orientation is considered. The second empirical analysis shows that this relationship is conditioned by the importance people assign to the respective issues. The final analysis demonstrates that what explains left-right orientation is contingent on individual and contextual factors. This implies that in order to understand left-right orientation, it is not enough to identify what has an impact on a person’s position but also account for all those factors that predict variation between individuals. Given this complexity, my conclusion is that the left-right concept runs the risk of becoming too complicated to serve as an analytical tool to shed light on political attitudes and behaviour. / El concepte esquerra-dreta és considerat com un factor facilitador de la comunicació en el món polític. Té una llarga tradició’ en la política europea degut a la seva capacitat d’absorbir diferents associacions a través del temps. Tanmateix, aquesta natura dinàmica del concepte requereix revisions periòdiques per assegurar que persisteix una conceptualització comuna. La present tesi es centra en resignar el que significa l’orientació esquerra-dreta. Normalment, es mesura tot demanant als enquestats posicionar-se a ells mateixos en una escala que va de l’esquerra a la dreta. El primer anàlisi empíric de la present tesi mostra que aquesta mesura és comparable entre grups i països. Seguidament, es considera la relació entre les preferències temàtiques dels individus i llur orientació esquerra-dreta. El segon anàlisi empíric mostra que aquesta relació està condicionada per la importància que les persones assignen als temes respectius. L’anàlisi final demostra que el que explica l’orientació esquerra-dreta depèn de factors contextuals i individuals. Això implica que per entendre l’orientació esquerra-dreta no és suficient identificar què té un impacte en la posició d’una persona sinó també una explicació per a tots aquells factors que preveuen la variació entre individus. Donada aquesta complexitat, la meva conclusió és que el concepte esquerra-dreta corre el risc de convertir-se en massa complicat per a servir com a eina analítica per a l’estudi de les actituds i el comportament politics.

Urban transport systems are facing seemingly irreconcilable problems.Sustainable transport policies are necessary to address this sustainability challenge. However,their effectiveness highly depends on the public attitude towards them. A method combiningboth qualitative and quantitative research was used to redefine a sustainable transport policybased on sustainability principles, and find out the key factors of public attitude towardssustainable transport policies. Furthermore, the interrelations between these factors arerevealed by using structural equation modelling. 1685 questionnaires were sent to fourrepresentative cities in Sweden: Stockholm, Göteborg, Uppsala and Karlskrona. By using thisfirst hand data, we discovered some differences between Karlskrona and these other threecities. The negative attitudes towards reducing car use and promoting public transport inKarlskrona is opposite to the positive attitudes in other cities. The acceptance of taxes, speedlimitation and parking regulation is notably different as well. The results also indicate that citycharacteristics influence public attitudes towards sustainable transport policies more thancitizens’ characteristics. The functionality of a city is the most significant factor. Moreover,the results show a high dependence on individual car use. This suggests that planners shouldnot use the experience gained from other cities without investigating actual local conditions.

Despite considerable advances in missing data imputation methods over the last three decades, the problem of missing data remains largely unsolved. Many techniques have emerged in the literature as candidate solutions. These techniques can be categorised into two classes: statistical methods of data imputation and computational intelligence methods of data imputation. Due to the longstanding use of statistical methods in handling missing data problems, it takes quite some time for computational intelligence methods to gain profound attention even though these methods have analogous accuracy, in comparison to other approaches. The merits of both these classes have been discussed at length in the literature, but only limited studies make significant comparison to these classes. This thesis contributes to knowledge by firstly, conducting a comprehensive comparison of standard statistical methods of data imputation, namely, mean substitution (MS), regression imputation (RI), expectation maximization (EM), tree imputation (TI) and multiple imputation (MI) on missing completely at random (MCAR) data sets. Secondly, this study also compares the efficacy of these methods with a computational intelligence method of data imputation, ii namely, a neural network (NN) on missing not at random (MNAR) data sets. The significance difference in performance of the methods is presented. Thirdly, a novel procedure for handling missing data is presented. A hybrid combination of each of these statistical methods with a NN, known here as the post-processing procedure, was adopted to approximate MNAR data sets. Simulation studies for each of these imputation approaches have been conducted to assess the impact of missing values on partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) based on the estimated accuracy of both structural and measurement parameters. The best method to deal with particular missing data mechanisms is highly recognized. Several significant insights were deduced from the simulation results. It was figured that for the problem of MCAR by using statistical methods of data imputation, MI performs better than the other methods for all percentages of missing data. Another unique contribution is found when comparing the results before and after the NN post-processing procedure. This improvement in accuracy may be resulted from the neural network's ability to derive meaning from the imputed data set found by the statistical methods. Based on these results, the NN post-processing procedure is capable to assist MS in producing significant improvement in accuracy of the approximated values. This is a promising result, as MS is the weakest method in this study. This evidence is also informative as MS is often used as the default method available to users of PLS-SEM software.

Background Inner strength has been described as an important phenomenon in association with disease management, health, and ageing. To increase the knowledge of the phenomenon of inner strength, a meta-theoretical analysis was performed which resulted in a model of Inner Strength where inner strength comprises four interrelated and interacting dimensions; connectedness, creativity, flexibility, and firmness. The model was used in this thesis as a theoretical framework. Aim The overall purpose of this thesis was to develop and validate an inner strength scale, describe inner strength among an older population, and elucidate its significance for experience of health, despite disease and adversities. Methods The studies had quantitative approaches with cross-sectional designs (I-III) and a qualitative approach with narrative interviews (IV). Studies I-IV was part of the GErontological Regional DAtabase (GERDA) Botnia project. In study I, the participants (n = 391, 19-90 years old) were mostly from northern Sweden. In studies II and III, the participants (n = 6119, 65, 70, 75 and 80 years old) were from Sweden and Finland, and in study IV the participants (n = 12, 67-82 years old) were from Västerbotten County. Data was analysed using principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), various statistics, structural equation modelling, and qualitative content analysis. Results In study I, the Inner Strength Scale (ISS) was developed and psychometrically tested. An initial 63-item ISS was reduced to a final 20-item ISS. A four-factor solution based on the four dimensions of inner strength was supported, explaining 51% of the variance, and the CFA showed satisfactory goodness-of-fit. In study II, ISS scores in relation to age, gender and culture showed the highest mean ISS score among the 65-year-olds, with a decrease in mean score for every subsequent age (70, 75, and 80 years). Women had slightly higher mean ISS scores than men, and there were minor differences between the regions in Sweden and Finland. In study III, a hypothesis was proposed and subsequently supported in the results where inner strength was found to partially mediate in the relationship between disease and self-rated health. The bias-corrected bootstrap, estimating the mediating indirect effect was significant and the test of goodness-of-fit was satisfactory. In study IV, from the narratives of inner strength it was found that inner strength comprised feelings of being connected and finding life worth living. Having faith in oneself and one’s possibilities and facing and taking an active part in the situation were also expressed. Finally, coming back and finding ways to go forward in life were found to be essential aspects of inner strength. Conclusions The newly developed ISS is a reliable and valid instrument that captures a broad perspective of inner strength. Basic data about inner strength in a large population of old people in Sweden and Finland is provided, showing the highest mean ISS score among the 65-year-olds. Inner strength among old people is a resource for experience of health, despite disease and adversities. This thesis contributes to increase knowledge of the phenomenon of inner strength and provide evidence for the importance of inner strength for old people’s wellbeing. Increased knowledge of the four dimensions of inner strength; connectedness, creativity, flexibility and firmness, is proposed to serve as an aid for health care professionals in their efforts to identify where the need of support is greatest and to find interventions that promotes and strengthen inner strength. / Bakgrund Inre styrka har beskrivits som ett viktigt fenomen associerat till att hantera sjukdom, till hälsa och åldrande. För att öka kunskapen om fenomenet inre styrka genomfördes en metateoretisk analys som resulterade i en Inre Styrka modell där inre styrka omfattar fyra samverkande dimensioner; samhörighet, kreativitet, flexibilitet och fasthet. Modellen har använts i denna avhandling som ett teoretiskt ramverk. Syfte Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling var att utveckla och testa en skala som mäter inre styrka, beskriva inre styrka i en population av äldre, och att belysa dess betydelse för upplevelsen av hälsa, trots sjukdom 0ch motgångar. Metod Studierna som genomfördes hade kvantitativ ansats med tvärsnittsdesign (I-III) och kvalitativ ansats med narrativa intervjuer (IV).  Alla studier var en del av GErontologiska Regionala DAtabas (GERDA) Botnia projektet. Deltagarna i studie I (n= 391, 19-90 år) var mestadels från norra delarna av Sverige. I studierna II och III var deltagarna (n=6119, 65, 70, 75 och 80 år) från Sverige och Finland. I studie IV var deltagarna (n=12, 67-82 år) från Västerbotten. Data analyserades med hjälp av principalkomponentanalys och konfirmatorisk faktor analys (CFA), varierande statistik, strukturell ekvationsmodellering, och kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat I studie I utvecklades och testades Inre Styrka Skalan (ISS). En inledande 63 frågors ISS reducerades till en slutlig 20 frågors ISS. Baserad på de fyra dimensionerna av inre styrka bekräftades en fyrafaktors lösning med 51 % förklaringsgrad och CFA visade ett tillfredställande goodness-of-fit. I studie II beskrevs inre styrka i relation till ålder, kön och kultur. Det högsta totala ISS medelvärdet skattades bland 65-åringarna med lägre medelvärden för varje efterföljande ålder (70, 75 och 80 år). Kvinnor skattade ett något högre totalt ISS medelvärde än män och det var inte några större skillnader mellan regionerna i Sverige och Finland. I studie III bekräftades den hypotes som lagts fram, att inre styrka kan mediera i relationen mellan sjukdom och upplevelsen av hälsa. Bias-corrected bootstrap visade en signifikant indirekt effekt i relationen mellan sjukdom och upplevelsen av hälsa, medierad av inre styrka, och test av modellens goodness-of-fit var tillfredsställande. I studie IV, utifrån berättelserna om inre styrka visade det sig att inre styrka omfattar känslor av samhörighet och att finna livet värt att leva. Att ha tillit till sig själv och sina möjligheter, och att kunna möta och ta aktiv del i situationen beskrevs också. Slutligen, att komma igen och hitta vägar att gå vidare i livet var viktiga aspekter av inre styrka.  Slutsatser Den nyutvecklade Inre Styrka Skalan är ett reliabelt och valitt instrument som fångar ett brett perspektiv av inre styrka. Basdata om inre styrka i en stor population äldre i Sverige och Finland har presenterats, och visar det högsta ISS medelvärdet bland 65-åringarna. Inre styrka bland äldre är en resurs för upplevelsen av hälsa, trots sjukdom och motgångar. Denna avhandling bidrar till att öka kunskapen om fenomenet inre styrka och ger evidens för att inre styrka har en viktig betydelse för äldres välbefinnande. Ökad kunskap om de fyra dimensionerna av inre styrka; samhörighet, kreativitet, flexibilitet, och fasthet, föreslås kunna vara en hjälp för vårdpersonal i deras arbete att identifiera var behovet av stöd är störst och att sätta in insatser som främjar och stärker inre styrka. / GErontologiska Regionala DAtabas (GERDA) Botnia projektet