The rising cost of tuition and fees is no doubt a major contributor to rising student debt but it is certainly not the only factor. The amount of debt with which students may graduate can largely be a function of the type of institution they attend (Monks, 2014). There is a dearth of research that focuses on the institutional factors that relate to student debt consumption (Craig and Raisanen, 2014; Macy and Terry, 2007). Prior studies have shown that the amount of expenditures and the area in which an institution spends their money can impact salient student outcomes This quantitative dissertation sought to examine institutional expenditures within higher education and their possible relationship to student debt through a fixed-effects analysis that used data across a six-year period. This study examined public comprehensive master's level institutions as defined by the Carnegie Classification system. This institutional type has been overlooked within higher education research (Henderson, 2007). In short, this dissertation sought to investigate the relationship between spending within the public comprehensive master's level institution and average annual federal student loan use. This study found that there was a modest negative relationship between spending on research and academic support and student loan consumption. Spending on operation of maintenance and plant was positively related to student loan consumption. This dissertation further found that the number of students receiving the Pell grant, the percent of students that identify as Hispanic and the number of full-time equivalent (FTE) students were statistically significant regarding their student loan use. The percent of students receiving the Pell grant within an institution related to higher levels of student debt. The percent of students that identify as Hispanic and the number of FTEs were related to lower average levels of student debt. This study has implications for policymakers and administrators pursuing factors that reduce student loan usage and gives insight into the impacts of institutional spending. These findings also have implications for future research that explores not only institutional spending and student outcomes but also how spending may impact institutional mission and the composition of a student body. / Ph. D. / There is no doubt that the cost of enrolling in a college or university has increased dramatically during the past few decades. There is significant research on the impacts of student loan use and what groups of students may be more or less prone to use student loans and possible associated outcomes (i.e. racial/ethnic background, job placement, homeownership and likelihood of default to name a few). What is far less explored are the ways in which an institution as a whole may impact student loan use. For example, we know very little about whether or not similar students attending similar schools would consume the same amount of student loans. If they do not this could be for a number of reasons. Unfortunately, there is a very limited set of studies that explore this phenomenon. This study explores one part of this puzzle by examining the spending patterns of public comprehensive master’s level institutions (i.e. Radford University, Eastern Kentucky University, Cal State Northridge) and their relationship to student loan use during a six-year period. Because these institutions tend to be less prominent than large research universities (Virginia Tech) they are often overlooked within higher education research. Prior research has found that the relationship between institutional spending and student outcome factors such as time to graduation, leadership development, and even the student body’s perception of their university are related. This study was undertaken in a very similar manner except the student outcome was the average annual amount of student loans consumed within the institutional population. There were relationships between spending categories (i.e. research, academic support and operation of maintenance and plant) and student loan use and not between other areas of spending (i.e. instruction, auxiliary, institutional support and student services). The findings from this study are important because even though we understand student loan use and the amount of debt students graduate with is a major concern we know little about the multitude of factors that may have an impact. This study is also important because it is easily replicable and draws data from easily available public databases. As student debt continues to be a concern and college administrators struggle to make up for lost revenues we should have measures and iv models that allow researchers and policymakers to readily explore how changes to a university’s spending patterns and even institutional classification may be effecting students.

The purpose of this study was to identify a set of determinants of quality for public two-year colleges. To identify specific measures of quality for public two-year colleges, 61 variables of quality were selected from recent research on quality in higher education and consolidated on the Inventory of Determinants of Quality (IDQ). This instrument was mailed to a random sample of two-year college presidents, two-year college faculty members, four-year college deans, and community business leaders. Of the 476 surveys mailed, 315 were returned. The ANOVA procedure identified 24 IDQ items which the four study groups agreed were important to determining quality at public two-year colleges and 6 IDQ items which were less important. The study groups differed significantly in rating the remaining 31 IDQ items as determinants of quality for public two-year colleges. The majority of items found to be important to determining quality at public two-year colleges were related to student outcomes and academic standards. Items related to faculty characteristics, such as research productivity, were found to be less important. Four-year college deans differed significantly from the other three study groups on 13 IDQ items. The major differences were on items related specifically to two-year colleges such as diverse instructional delivery systems and the relationship between the two-year college and its local community. The results of the study led to two major conclusions regarding the determination of quality of public two—year colleges. First, a different set of criteria must be used for measuring quality at two-year colleges. Second, outcome measures must be an integral part of any two-year college evaluation system. Further research is recommended to determine the degree to which the items identified as determinants of quality for two-year colleges should be measured.

The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine whether differences in student course outcomes as defined by final course grades existed between three content delivery methods in career and technical education courses: Traditional (face to face), hybrid, and online. Final course grades in career and technical education courses at one community college for the Fall 2011 through the Fall 2015 semesters were used in this study to compare the success of students in courses employing the three content delivery methods. The outcomes for male and female students and the outcomes for traditional and nontraditional students in career and technical education programs were compared as well. The method of delivery was found to have an impact. Withdrawal rates for career and technical education courses were also impacted by course delivery method. Seven research questions were included in this study, and the data was analyzed using one-sample chi-square tests for the seven research questions in the study. Results indicated that students had significantly higher student learning outcomes in traditional courses in career and technical education programs than in either hybrid or online courses. Withdrawal rates were higher for hybrid and online courses than traditional courses. Student gender and age were related to student final course outcomes with both male and female students more likely to earn transferable final course grades in traditional courses than in hybrid or online courses. Traditional age and nontraditional age students were also more likely to earn transferable final course grades in traditional courses than in hybrid or online courses. Nontraditional age students were significantly more likely than traditional age students to earn a transferable final course grade regardless of delivery method. Overall findings suggest that delivery method may impact student outcomes in career and technical education courses. The study is significant in that it provides insight into specific differences in student outcomes by the three different delivery methods currently used in higher education and may be used for comparison with other institutions’ student outcomes.

Researchers have associated parent involvement in primary schools with the improvement of grades, attendance, and the decrease of negative social behaviors. Consequently, parent involvement has improved in many primary schools. However, in secondary schools, parent participation continues to be deficient, particularly among Latino and African American communities due to language barriers, low incomes, and lack of social networks. Research is needed on how parent participation affects student achievement in secondary schools with underserved populations. Social capital theory provided the conceptual framework to help determine if parent involvement could create parent-school relationships that would lead to improved student academic and behavioral outcomes in a predominantly minority urban charter high school. The quasi-experimental observational study used program data and pre and post archived student records provided over a 2-year period from a convenience sample of 83 continuously enrolled students. Epstein's framework was used to categorize types of parent involvement, which constituted the independent variables. T tests and chi-squared analyses were used to test the association between the independent variables and dependent variables. The study found a limited association between GPA and ELA grades and certain types of parent participation activities for students overall, but not for English Language Learners. Attendance was not found to be affected significantly and data were lacking on suspensions and expulsions. The results of this study informs administrators who seek to increase parent involvement in order to improve student achievement and decrease the drop-out rate in high schools serving at risk students.

This thesis reports the findings of a case study into the outcomes and learning environments of students studying for a Diploma of Technology at a New Zealand Tertiary Education Institution. The primary focus of the study was to develop an assessment framework that would facilitate simultaneous assessment of the local Institute achievement-based Diploma of Technology and the competency-based assessment of a National Diploma that the local diploma subsumed. From this primary focus on assessment, the study provided the opportunity to undertake a grounded theory study of literature that impacted on the learning environment, supported the necessity to rationalise the student learning outcomes from both an academic and work skill perspective, and presented a suitable situation in which to take a fresh look at the method of grading and marking students’ assessment material. / The grounded theory study grew out of the need to condense the vast amount of literature that was gathered in the process of searching for background material to use in the building of a foundation on which to construct a dual assessment model. Although no literature was found that specifically dealt with the simultaneous dual assessment, a large amount of material was found that related to various aspects of the learning environment. Through the process of a grounded theory study, this material was condensed into categories of data that in turn were used to develop a theoretical model of an ‘ideal’ learning environment. Into this model was also added the results of a questionnaire based research study into the perceived need for diploma graduates to have a range of employability skills. This study involved a range of employers who considered themselves likely to employ a diploma graduate. Because the learning outcomes for the two diplomas covered essentially the same material yet the actual wording of the outcomes were substantially quite different, there was a need to rationalise the sets of learning outcomes for each diploma. This process led to a common set of outcomes that in turn were used as a focus for students’ learning and assessment. / Once these common outcomes had been identified, a rubric based marking/scoring system was developed so that both students and teacher could quickly grade students’ assessment material and then convert that grade into a mark. The use of the grade facilitated the assessment of achievement against a unit standard and the resultant marks satisfied the need for an achievement mark. The results and findings from the various studies were then translated into a working model that was used for two courses over one semester. Various other research methodologies were then used in order to provide some evaluation of the working model.The thesis does present some of the difficulties facing tertiary teachers in an environment that is becoming more and more of a production line business rather than a service to provide learning opportunities for students. However it also presents solid evidence that teachers can take measures to prove themselves through study and initiative and provide those focussed learning environments where students can attain the outcomes necessary for a successful career in tomorrow’s world.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the relationship between technology integration indicators and school level achievement. Four years of school level secondary data from publicly available databases maintained by the Florida Department of Education were combined for all public elementary, middle, and high schools in the state. This study examined approximately 2300 schools that participated each year in the Florida Innovates Survey about technology integration between 2003-04 and 2006-07. Complexity theory supported the use of multi-level modeling to examine the relationships between technology integration and outcomes. Three achievement outcomes (reading, mathematics, and writing) and two mediating behavioral outcomes (attendance and misconduct) were investigated. Moderating variables controlled in the model included school level, demographics, and learning environment. After data preparation, all composite variables were developed using factor analysis. Models were progressively built with significant variables at each level retained in subsequent levels of the study. A total of 94 models were estimated with maximum likelihood estimation using SAS 9.1.3 statistical software. The integration of technology is only one of the many factors that impact student learning within the classroom environment. Results supported previous research about the relationship between the moderating variables and school level achievement and confirmed the need to include moderating variables in the model. After controlling for all the other moderating variables, technology integration had a significant relationship with mean school achievement. Although the percent of teachers who regularly use technology for administrative purposes was consistently significant in the models for four out of five outcomes studied, the interactions with time, time2, and time3, resulted in curvilinear trends with inconsistent results. These inconsistent significant findings make drawing conclusions about the integration of technology within Florida's public schools difficult. Furthermore, the small changes observed in mean school achievement over the span of this study support the concept that time is a critical factor for school level learning and change. Therefore, continued analyses of the longitudinal trends for Florida schools in the relationship between technology integration variables and school achievement, while controlling for moderating variables, are recommended.

New programming, such as the Specialist High Skills Major has been implemented in Ontario as part of the Student Success Learning to 18 Strategy to increase secondary graduation rates. Yet it has been unclear if this type of programming is actually improving student outcomes. As a result, this study asks: How does the implementation of the Specialist High Skills Majors (SHSM) contribute to student outcomes? Sub-research questions inquire about the consistency of the SHSM across Ontario, which students the SHSM has the greatest impact on academic success and if participation in the SHSM increases students’ academic success as defined by credit accumulation, marks, and graduation. The conceptual framework in this study is an amended version of Fullan’s (2007) critical factors that affect policy implementation. The study’s methods first included reviewing Ontario School Information System data on student achievement in the SHSM program. Interviews with thirty-four people also took place in eight schools from a mix of four geographically diverse Catholic and public school districts in Ontario that had high student enrollment in the SHSM program. While there were many findings within this study, four were key. The first finding was that there was great consistency to some aspects of implementing the SHSM program province-wide when there was top-down direction, while there was also great variability in other areas where there was increased flexibility. The second key finding centers around the role of leadership, including effective styles of leadership, consistency in leadership, and the importance of delegating leadership responsibility. The third finding highlights the importance of resources in implementing change. The last finding discusses the type of SHSM student that is most successful in the SHSM program and how program implementation directly affects student success.

New programming, such as the Specialist High Skills Major has been implemented in Ontario as part of the Student Success Learning to 18 Strategy to increase secondary graduation rates. Yet it has been unclear if this type of programming is actually improving student outcomes. As a result, this study asks: How does the implementation of the Specialist High Skills Majors (SHSM) contribute to student outcomes? Sub-research questions inquire about the consistency of the SHSM across Ontario, which students the SHSM has the greatest impact on academic success and if participation in the SHSM increases students’ academic success as defined by credit accumulation, marks, and graduation. The conceptual framework in this study is an amended version of Fullan’s (2007) critical factors that affect policy implementation. The study’s methods first included reviewing Ontario School Information System data on student achievement in the SHSM program. Interviews with thirty-four people also took place in eight schools from a mix of four geographically diverse Catholic and public school districts in Ontario that had high student enrollment in the SHSM program. While there were many findings within this study, four were key. The first finding was that there was great consistency to some aspects of implementing the SHSM program province-wide when there was top-down direction, while there was also great variability in other areas where there was increased flexibility. The second key finding centers around the role of leadership, including effective styles of leadership, consistency in leadership, and the importance of delegating leadership responsibility. The third finding highlights the importance of resources in implementing change. The last finding discusses the type of SHSM student that is most successful in the SHSM program and how program implementation directly affects student success.

Does leadership education matter? The purpose of this study was to examine principals’ perceived understandings of the relationships between their participation in leadership education to improvements in student outcomes as the result of their changes in knowledge, skills, and dispositions, and leadership practices. Ten principals were asked to discuss their leadership education experiences in either a master’s degree of education (MEd) with specialization in educational administration or a nondegree professional development (PD) certification program. Manitoba, a Canadian province, has a school leaders’ certification program that requires candidates to possess teaching certificates, have teaching and leadership experience, and meet certain academic requirements. The latter criterion can be achieved through an MEd, a PhD in educational leadership, a series of PD programs, or a combination approved by the ministry of education. Leithwood and Levin’s (2008) model was used as the conceptual framework and in constructing the interview protocol. The protocol also considered insights from Hoyle and Torres’s (2008) habits of scholarship; Robinson and Timperley’s (2007) and Downey, Steffy, English, Frase, and Poston’s (2004) leadership practices; and Manitoba Education, Citizenship, and Youth’s (2006) student outcomes. Participants were interviewed by telephone for 60 to 90 minutes. Member checking confirmed the accuracy of their transcriptions. The principals, who represented schools that spanned Kindergarten to Grade 12, included five men and five women from different regions, and these principals generally had 10 to 20 years of teaching experience and had served as administrators for 5 to 10 years. The 7 MEd graduates reported 5 to 11 changes to practice, and the 3 nondegree PD graduates reported 8 to 9 changes to practice, with a common practice being the provision of educational direction. Principals also reported a shift from top-down leadership to shared leadership and their need to find a new role within learning communities through leadership education. Generally, principals perceived that their changes in leadership practices had a positive effect on student engagement, participation, and achievement. Leithwood and Levin’s (2008) conceptual framework served as a good model for conducting a study on leadership education. This study confirmed that leadership education matters.

Does leadership education matter? The purpose of this study was to examine principals’ perceived understandings of the relationships between their participation in leadership education to improvements in student outcomes as the result of their changes in knowledge, skills, and dispositions, and leadership practices. Ten principals were asked to discuss their leadership education experiences in either a master’s degree of education (MEd) with specialization in educational administration or a nondegree professional development (PD) certification program. Manitoba, a Canadian province, has a school leaders’ certification program that requires candidates to possess teaching certificates, have teaching and leadership experience, and meet certain academic requirements. The latter criterion can be achieved through an MEd, a PhD in educational leadership, a series of PD programs, or a combination approved by the ministry of education. Leithwood and Levin’s (2008) model was used as the conceptual framework and in constructing the interview protocol. The protocol also considered insights from Hoyle and Torres’s (2008) habits of scholarship; Robinson and Timperley’s (2007) and Downey, Steffy, English, Frase, and Poston’s (2004) leadership practices; and Manitoba Education, Citizenship, and Youth’s (2006) student outcomes. Participants were interviewed by telephone for 60 to 90 minutes. Member checking confirmed the accuracy of their transcriptions. The principals, who represented schools that spanned Kindergarten to Grade 12, included five men and five women from different regions, and these principals generally had 10 to 20 years of teaching experience and had served as administrators for 5 to 10 years. The 7 MEd graduates reported 5 to 11 changes to practice, and the 3 nondegree PD graduates reported 8 to 9 changes to practice, with a common practice being the provision of educational direction. Principals also reported a shift from top-down leadership to shared leadership and their need to find a new role within learning communities through leadership education. Generally, principals perceived that their changes in leadership practices had a positive effect on student engagement, participation, and achievement. Leithwood and Levin’s (2008) conceptual framework served as a good model for conducting a study on leadership education. This study confirmed that leadership education matters.