This dissertation examines how turbidity currents interact with submarine channels. Turbidity currents display exaggerated super-elevation at the outer banks of channel bends, because they have low excess densities relative to the ambient sea-water. Low-velocity zones form where flows separate from the inner banks. In a high-resolution seismic volume, I mapped 226 inclined surfaces associated with bank-attached bars in 16 channel bends of 2 buried sinuous channels. Position and geometries of bars indicate construction from suspended sediment in flow separation zones. Concave-bank benches, first identified in rivers where they are built from fully-suspended sediment deposited within flow separation zones in channel bends, comprise approximately 19% of this dataset. Bars have high median slopes (10°-11°) and occupy less than 30% of channel width. Associated channels migrated a median distance of less than 70% of the channel width and incised 20-30% of the channel depth. These bars are therefore interpreted to have formed during sediment bypass or weak erosion. I have analyzed the sedimentology and stratigraphy of a well-exposed channel complex, in the Permian Brushy Canyon Formation, west Texas. A steeply-inclined set of fine-grained sandstone beds (median dip=10°) at the margin of the channel complex is interpreted as deposits of a bank-attached bar. Beds are characterized by sub- to super-critically climbing ripple-lamination, planar stratification and trough cross-stratification. Paleo-transport directions are at high angles, 20-120°, to the dip azimuths of interpreted bar surfaces. Geometries of bounding surfaces, sedimentation styles and grain-size data were used to construct a facies model for suspension-dominated, bank-attached bars, built within flow-separation zones in submarine channels. I designed physical experiments to examine how erosional turbidity currents evolve channel- bend topography. Time-lapse bathymetry maps capture the evolution of raised benches tied to sedimentation within flow separation zones and erosion outside of separation zones. Erosional currents showed sensitivity to local conditions. The pattern of erosion was connected to roughness elements such as bend curvature and scours on the bed. Turbidity current run-up at the outside of bends produced a greater aerial extent of side-wall erosion than is commonly seen in incisional rivers.

Submarine channel-levee systems represent one of the most significant features of sediment transfer on Earth and one of the final segments in source-to-sink routing systems. As such, they serve as conduits as well as intermediate or final storage for large volumes of sediment, paleoenvironmental signals, and pollutants on their way to the deep ocean. Over the years, these systems have been studied through a variety of methods, including: (i) outcropping analogs; (ii) seismic data, occasionally integrated with core analysis; (iii) numerical modeling and physical experiments, and more recently; (iv) repeated multibeam bathymetry and (v) direct measurement of sediment gravity flows. However, as we are able to show in this study, there are still questions about the inherent evolution of these systems that need to be addressed. In this study, we focus on the sedimentary processes and depositional products of submarine channel-levee systems through the characterization, analysis and interpretation at different scales of outcropping analog systems of the Upper Cretaceous Tres Pasos and Cerro Toro Formations in the Magallanes-Austral Basin. In the first research-chapter, Chapter 2, we analyze the transition between laterally offset and vertically stacked channels on a previously undocumented, seismic-scale outcrop of the Tres Pasos Formation. This change in stacking pattern has been widely recognized in submarine channel systems, however, the stratigraphic and sedimentologic details and implications to general conceptual models have not been addressed in the past. Our observations indicate that in between these two depositional architecture styles there is a significant phase of erosion and bypass at a complex-scale (or larger) and that the relief achieved via this deep incision of one or multiple simultaneously active conduits was the necessary condition to promote flow stripping processes and associated overbank deposition. In addition, we discuss the presence of an unusual intra-channel lithofacies association observed directly overlying one of these incisions, which we interpret to represent the along-strike expression of bedforms associated with supercritical flow processes that are found in modern channels and some ancient channel-fill successions. In the next research chapter, Chapter 3, we characterize a 500 m thick fine-grained dominated sedimentary succession interpreted as overbank deposits of the Cerro Toro Formation that have been affected by synsedimentary faulting and crosscut by an extensive injectite network. The scale of this outcrop allows us to resolve the relationship between sedimentary packages and structural features that are commonly overlooked or beyond the resolution of datasets derived from other sources by using high-resolution measurements and quantitative analysis at a cm scale. The orientation of synsedimentary normal faults, paleocurrent directions, and characteristics of 10-36 m thick sandstone-prone intervals suggest a model of overspilling turbidity currents (from the main axial channel belt to the west) on a large levee-slope that might share deformational mechanisms with other depositional slopes. Finally, in Chapter 4, we use detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology to determine maximum depositional ages of seven sandstone samples attributed to the axial channel-belt of the Cerro Toro Formation and shallow-marine deposits of the Dorotea Formation, which extend the chronostratigraphic framework for Ultima Esperanza 55 km southward to help reduce the gap between field sites in the Ultima Esperanza and Magallanes provinces. Based on these new data, we hypothesize that the conglomeratic-rich deposits at this location, which have generally similar lithofacies and large-scale stratigraphic architecture to the Cerro Toro Formation, are unlikely to represent the southward extension of the well-studied axial channel belt deposits to the north, and therefore they potentially represent their own sediment routing system emanating from erosional catchments in the fold-thrust belt to the west. This chapter highlights the value of establishing a chronostratigraphic framework to reconstruct ancient paleogeography in addition to interpretation based purely on observable sedimentary parameters. / Doctor of Philosophy / Turbidity currents are one of the most common processes in in deep-marine environments, they are sediment-laden flows that move downslope due to an excess of density caused by the sediment they carry. They occur under a wide range of geomorphologic configurations, one of such are submarine channel-levees systems. A submarine channel-levee system is a composite geomorphologic feature in the ocean floor consisting of a concave, long-lived sedimentary conduit flanked by parallel depositional highs that is orders of magnitude longer in its downslope longitude than its width. These systems have a worldwide distribution and can be found in every tectonic setting. They represent one of the final segments in sedimentary routing systems and their study is of great importance for numerous reasons, including (i) as hydrocarbon reservoirs, (ii) to mitigate submarine geological hazards that might affect human infrastructure, (iii) their role in the carbon cycle as they transport and bury organic carbon, (iv) their impact to the marine environment as they disperse human-sourced pollutants, and (v) their capacity to preserve geochemical proxies that record past climate and tectonic history. This dissertation is divided in three research chapters focused on different aspects of the processes and depositional products of submarine channel-levee systems through the characterization, analysis and interpretation at different scales of analog ancient systems now exposed in the mountains of Southern Chile. The use of outcropping sedimentary successions is a common practice to characterize and understand modern environments, as they provide an accessible record of their evolution through temporal scales of hundreds of thousands or even millions of years. From a geologic point of view, this study is located in the Chilean part of the Magallanes-Austral Basin, which in the past was an ocean that reached paleowater depths of ~2,000 m during the Late Cretaceous and that was subsequently filled with sediments that form the different geologic units of the area. Here, we focus on two geologic units that represent deep-marine sedimentation in this ancient ocean, known as the Tres Pasos and the Cerro Toro formations. Our study ranges from the detailed stratigraphic characterization of the transition between two different styles of stacking patterns widely recognized in submarine channel systems and its implications, to the influence of sedimentary structures on hundreds of meters of fine-grained sediments deposited in a large levee subjected to failure, and the use of tiny minerals known as zircons to constrain the depositional age and paleogeography associated to coarse-grained deposits historically attributed to a >150 km long axial channel-belt. The results presented here do not only serve to better understand the configuration of ancient deep-marine deposits in this part of the world, but also have implications to improve our understanding of the fundamental sedimentary processes and the depositional products in deep-marine environments worldwide.

Physical experiments are used to investigate the influence of the Coriolis forces on flow structures in channelized turbidity currents, and their implication for the evolution of straight and sinuous submarine channels. Initial tests were used to determine whether or not saline density currents are a good surrogate for particle-laden currents. Results imply that this assumption is valid when turbidity currents are weakly-depositional and have similar velocity and turbulence structures to saline density currents. Second, the controls of Coriolis forces on flow structures in straight channel sections are compared with two mathematical models: Ekman boundary layer dynamics and the theory of Komar [1969]. Ekman boundary layer dynamics prove to be a more suitable description of flow structures in rotating turbidity currents and should be used to derive flow parameters from submarine channels systems that are subjected to Coriolis forces. The significance of Coriolis forces for submarine channel systems were determined by evaluating the dimensionless Rossby number RoW. The Rossby number is defined as the ratio of the flow velocity, U, of a turbidity current to the channel width, W, and the rotation rate of the Earth represented by the Coriolis parameter, f. Coriolis forces are very significant for channel systems with RoW ≤ O(1). Third, the effect of Coriolis forces on the internal flow structure in sinuous submarine channels is considered. Since previous studies have only considered pressure gradient and centrifugal forces, the Coriolis force provides a crucial contribution to the lateral momentum balance in channel bends. In a curved channel, both the Rossby number RoW and the ratio of the channel curvature radius R to the channel width W, determine whether Coriolis forces affect the internal flow structure. The results demonstrate that Coriolis forces can cause a significant shift of the density interface and the downstream velocity core of channelized turbidity currents. The sediment transport regime in high-latitude channel systems, which have RoW << R/W, is therefore strongly influenced by Coriolis forces. Finally, these findings are incorporated into a conceptual model describing the evolution of submarine channels at different latitudes. For instance, the Northern Hemisphere channels have a distinctly higher right levee system and migrate predominantly to the left side and generally exhibit a low sinuosity. In contrast, low latitude channel systems have RoW >> R/W so that centrifugal forces are more dominant. This results in more sinuous submarine channel systems with varying levee asymmetries in subsequent channel bends. In conclusion, Coriolis forces are negligible around the equator but should be considered in high latitude systems, particularly when RoW ~ O(1) and RoW << R/W.

Physical experiments are used to investigate the influence of the Coriolis forces on flow structures in channelized turbidity currents, and their implication for the evolution of straight and sinuous submarine channels. Initial tests were used to determine whether or not saline density currents are a good surrogate for particle-laden currents. Results imply that this assumption is valid when turbidity currents are weakly-depositional and have similar velocity and turbulence structures to saline density currents. Second, the controls of Coriolis forces on flow structures in straight channel sections are compared with two mathematical models: Ekman boundary layer dynamics and the theory of Komar [1969]. Ekman boundary layer dynamics prove to be a more suitable description of flow structures in rotating turbidity currents and should be used to derive flow parameters from submarine channels systems that are subjected to Coriolis forces. The significance of Coriolis forces for submarine channel systems were determined by evaluating the dimensionless Rossby number RoW. The Rossby number is defined as the ratio of the flow velocity, U, of a turbidity current to the channel width, W, and the rotation rate of the Earth represented by the Coriolis parameter, f. Coriolis forces are very significant for channel systems with RoW ≤ O(1). Third, the effect of Coriolis forces on the internal flow structure in sinuous submarine channels is considered. Since previous studies have only considered pressure gradient and centrifugal forces, the Coriolis force provides a crucial contribution to the lateral momentum balance in channel bends. In a curved channel, both the Rossby number RoW and the ratio of the channel curvature radius R to the channel width W, determine whether Coriolis forces affect the internal flow structure. The results demonstrate that Coriolis forces can cause a significant shift of the density interface and the downstream velocity core of channelized turbidity currents. The sediment transport regime in high-latitude channel systems, which have RoW << R/W, is therefore strongly influenced by Coriolis forces. Finally, these findings are incorporated into a conceptual model describing the evolution of submarine channels at different latitudes. For instance, the Northern Hemisphere channels have a distinctly higher right levee system and migrate predominantly to the left side and generally exhibit a low sinuosity. In contrast, low latitude channel systems have RoW >> R/W so that centrifugal forces are more dominant. This results in more sinuous submarine channel systems with varying levee asymmetries in subsequent channel bends. In conclusion, Coriolis forces are negligible around the equator but should be considered in high latitude systems, particularly when RoW ~ O(1) and RoW << R/W.

By examining halokinetics and channel evolution in a deep-water system, we investigate how submarine channel morphology is affected by changing seascape linked to diapirism. The study area is located in Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico (GOM), situated directly off the continental slope in a prominent salt dome region. Interactions of salt domes with submarine channels in the GOM are poorly documented. Utilizing 3D seismic data and seismic geomorphology techniques, a long-lived Plio-Pleistocene submarine channel system has been investigated to develop a relationship between variable phases of salt movement and plan-form morphology of preserved channels. We suggest that halokinetics acts as a driver for topographic-channel evolution in the study area. We show how submarine channel morphology can be directly controlled by halokinetics, where salt movement can act as a structural control on both location and morphology of meandering channel complexes. Channels are able to move towards an equilibrium state only when holokinetics decreases.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-04-26T15:56:41Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESECAMARGO2016.pdf: 15058868 bytes, checksum: 6592263913f5c42e961d6608f27df3e1 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-26T15:56:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESECAMARGO2016.pdf: 15058868 bytes, checksum: 6592263913f5c42e961d6608f27df3e1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-25 / CAPES / A geodiversidade de uma plataforma continental se refere à heterogeneidade de feições geológicas e geomorfológicas e determinam a ocorrência de paisagens submersas e hábitats bentônicos específicos. Muitas vezes, aspectos abióticos do assoalho marinho são usados como indicadores substitutos de hábitats bentônicos e subsidiam iniciativas em prol de sua conservação e manejo. No sentido de investigar a geodiversidade e as paisagens submersas da Plataforma Continental Sul de Pernambuco (PCSPE), as bacias hidrográficas costeiras e o assoalho marinho, entre as profundidades de 10 e 120 metros, foram analisadas através de técnicas de geoprocessamento, levantamentos batimétricos e videográficos. A tese buscou identificar os padrões espaciais da geodiversidade e paisagens submersas e contribuir para a conservação da biodiversidade local, em especial, àquela relacionada aos substratos consolidados. O MDE da porção emersa da área (9.085 km2) permitiu a identificação de feições topográficas, como o Planalto da Borborema e o Lineamento Pernambuco. Além disto, subsidiou a caracterização morfométrica das bacias hidrográficas, evidenciando as do Rio Una e Rio Sirinhaém, como as maiores e mais importantes. No tocante à porção submersa da área, a compilação de 559.365 pontos batimétricos permitiu a geração de um MDE (971 km2), revelando a presença marcante de três canais submersos e de degraus nas faixas de profundidade de 16-20, 20-23, 25-30, 35-40 e 50-55 m. 287 seções transversais realizadas no MDE permitiram identificar e descrever setores topograficamente distintos ao longo dos canais submersos. Tal heterogeneidade provavelmente está relacionada com períodos de estabilização, durante as oscilações do nível do mar. 64 amostras de sedimentos com teores de cascalho, areia, silte e argila, 49 amostras com teores de carbonato de cálcio, bem como a localização de 29 fundos consolidados registrados em sonogramas permitiram a caracterização da cobertura sedimentar da PCSPE. A mesma, mostrou-se predominantemente carbonática, com maiores contribuições de areias e cascalhos biogênicos, demonstrando a importância dos organismos secretores de carbonato de cálcio, bem adaptados a águas rasas, quentes e iluminadas. A integração de dados de topografia e de variações eustáticas do nível do mar possibilitou a proposição de um modelo paleogeográfico para a plataforma continental leste brasileira, que apresentou potencial para a ocorrência de pelo menos 15 canais submersos, entre os estados da PB, PE e AL, diante das características morfométricas entre as bacias hidrográficas, influenciadas pelo Planalto da Borborema. A análise da distribuição de declividade na PCSPE demonstrou que a área é predominantemente plana, salvo junto às topografias acidentadas dos canais submersos e da borda da plataforma, e pontualmente na plataforma continental interna. Através da análise de 03 vídeo-transectos, em dois setores distintos do Canal da Zieta, foi evidenciada a vocação da declividade, como indicador substituto de substratos consolidados. Aparentemente, os relevos ondulados da PCSPE indicam a ocorrência de paisagens submersas dominadas por este tipo de substrato. Um número maior e diverso de vídeo-transectos, bem como a integração com dados biológicos, são altamente recomendados, para que, através de análises mais robustas, a relação da declividade do terreno, como indicador substituto de ambientes recifais, seja consolidada. A localização restrita dos relevos acidentados forneceu uma visão da provável reduzida distribuição desses ambientes, podendo contribuir para o desenho mais adequado de Áreas Marinhas Protegidas. O potencial de ocorrência de canais submersos na plataforma continental leste brasileira sugere a replicação dos esforços aqui reunidos. Com dezenas de quilômetros de extensão, profundidades de até 40 metros, e aparentemente, concentrando biodiversidade, os canais submersos devem ser considerados importantes feições topográficas da região, não apenas por suas dimensões, mas também por sua importância ambiental e socioeconômica. / The geodiversity of a continental shelf refers to the heterogeneity of geological and geomorphological features and determine the occurrence of specific seascapes and benthic habitats. Often, abiotic aspects of the seafloor are used as surrogate of benthic habitats and subsidize initiatives for their conservation and management. In order to investigate the geodiversity and seascapes of the South Continental Shelf of Pernambuco (PCSPE), the coastal watersheds and the seafloor, between depths of 10 and 120 meters, were analyzed by geoprocessing techniques, bathymetric and videographic surveys. The thesis sought to identify the spatial patterns of geodiversity and seascapes and contribute to the conservation of local biodiversity, in particular to that related to consolidated substrates. A DEM of the emerged portion of the study area (9,085 km2) allowed the identification of topographic features, such as the Borborema Plateau and the Pernambuco Lineament. In addition, it subsidized the morphometric characterization of the coastal watersheds, evidencing those of Una and Sirinhaém rivers, as the largest and most important. As for the submerged portion of the study area, the compilation of 559.365 bathymetric points allowed the generation of an DEM (971 km2), revealing the remarkable presence of three submerged channels and of steps in the depth ranges of 16-20, 20-23 , 25-30, 35-40 and 50-55 m. 287 cross sections performed in the DEM allowed to identify and describe 11 topographically distinct sectors along the submerged channels. Such heterogeneity is probably related to periods of stabilization during sea level oscillations. 64 sediment samples with gravel, sand, silt and clay contents, 49 samples with calcium carbonate contents, as well as the location of 29 consolidated substrates recorded in sonograms allowed the characterization of the sedimentary cover of the PCSPE. It was predominantly carbonatic, with a higher contribution of biogenic sands and gravel, demonstrating the importance of calcium carbonate secreting organisms, well adapted to shallow, warm and illuminated tropical waters. The integration of topography data and eustatic variations of the sea level allowed the proposal of a paleogeographic model for the East Brazilian Continental Shelf, which presented potential for the occurrence of at least 15 submerged channels, among the states of PB, PE and AL, due to the morphometric similarities between the watersheds, influenced by the Borborema Plateau. The analysis of the slope distribution in the PCSPE showed that the area is predominantly flat except for the rugged topographies of the submerged channels and the shelf edge, and occasionally on the internal continental shelf. Through the analysis of 03 video-transects, in two distinct sectors of the Zieta Channel, the vocation of slope was evidenced as a surrogate of consolidated substrates. Apparently, the wavy reliefs of PCSPE indicate the occurrence of submerged landscapes dominated by this type of substrate. A larger and diverse number of video transects, as well as integration with biological data, are highly recommended, so that, through more robust analyzes, the relationship of the terrain slope as a surrogate of reef environments would been consolidated. The restricted location of the rugged reliefs provided an insight into the likely reduced distribution of these environments and could contribute to the most appropriate design of Protected Marine Areas. The potential of submerged channels in the East Brazilian Continental Shelf suggests the replication of the efforts gathered here. The submerged channels, with tens of kilometers of depth, depths of up to 40 meters, and apparently concentrating biodiversity, should be considered important topographic features of the region, not only because of their size, but also because of their environmental and socioeconomic importance.