Abstract available through Clinical Pharmacology in Drug Development.

Many patients suffering from depressive disorders are refractory to treatment with currently available antidepressant medications, while many more exhibit only a partial response. These factors drive research to discover new pharmacological approaches to treat depression. Numerous studies demonstrate evidence of inflammation and elevated oxidative stress in major depression. Recently, major depression has been shown to be associated with elevated levels of DNA oxidation in brain cells, accompanied by increased gene expression of the nuclear base excision repair enzyme, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1. Given these findings and evidence that drugs that inhibit poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 activity have antiinflammatory and neuroprotective properties, the present study was undertaken to examine the potential antidepressant properties of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors.

This study was designed to analyze the effects of adolescent exposure to methylphenidate (MPH; trade name: Ritalin) on nicotine self-administration, the motivation to obtain nicotine, and accumbal neuronal firing rate in female adolescent rats. MPH is the most commonly prescribed medication for Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) which is diagnosed in 3-5% of adolescents in the United States. However, this disorder is often misdiagnosed, and MPH is often prescribed to individuals not diagnosed with ADHD. Adolescent female Sprague-dawley rats were ip administered 1 mg/kg MPH or saline using a “school day” regimen of five days on, two days off, beginning on postnatal day (P)28 and this regimen was maintained throughout testing. A 1 mg/kg dose of MPH has been shown to result in brain plasma levels equivalent to clinical dosing in humans. Indwelling catheters were implanted in the jugular vein at P35, and one week later on P42, animals began nicotine self-administration. MPH (1 mg/kg) was administered each day approximately 6 h before each self-administration session began, which allows for nearly full plasma clearance of MPH (half-life = 1 h) before self-administration commenced. Rats were reduced to 85% of their free-feeding body weight and sipper tubes were made available to the rats in this paradigm, and responses to licking the tube produced an infusion of nicotine solution (15μg/kg) over a range of fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement schedules followed by a progressive ratio (PR) schedule, a measure of motivation. The schedule of reinforcement during 60 min sessions was increased from an FR5 to FR15 over approximately a three-week period. Results revealed that MPH pre-exposed rats self-administered significantly higher amounts of nicotine as compared to animals treated with saline throughout the FR5 and FR10 schedules. Further, MPH enhanced the motivation to self-administer nicotine on the PR schedule compared to controls, demonstrating an enhanced motivation to obtain nicotine produced by MPH. Finally, animals that had been pre-exposed to MPH and self-administered nicotine demonstrated a lower rate of basal accumbal firing as compared to controls, but a burst firing in response to nicotine that was higher than rats pre-exposed to saline. In conclusion, MPH altered the behavioral and neural response to nicotine in the nucleus accumbens.

Methylphenidate (MPH) is widely prescribed during childhood and adolescence for treatment of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. MPH is also one of the most commonly abused prescription drugs. However, the effects of MPH exposure and MPH abuse on incentive motivation are not well known. Moreover, MPH abuse during adolescence could increase sensitivity to the incentive motivational effects of other abused drugs such as nicotine in adulthood. Thus, the goals of this experiment were to investigate the effects of MPH exposure on the motivation to obtain sucrose during adolescence and to examine whether adolescent methylphenidate exposure altered the incentive motivational effects of nicotine (NIC) in adulthood. Incentive motivation was measured using an operant conditioning paradigm with sucrose available under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement (PR). Adolescent female rats were used because our previous studies have shown stronger sensitization to the locomotor stimulant effects of MPH. Rats arrived at post-natal day 21 (P21) and were shaped to respond for sucrose (20% w/v) on the PR schedule beginning on P24. After stable operant responding was established, rats were randomly assigned to receive either MPH (n=7) or SAL (n=6) injections (intraperitoneal) 30 min prior to test sessions, with the constraint that sucrose rewards earned did not differ between groups. Injection tests began on P36 and were carried out on alternating days for 10 total tests (P36-54). Although there was a trend for increased motivation for sucrose in the MPH group, it did not reach statistical significance. No further testing occurred until the rats reached adulthood (P55-P78). Over the next 5 days (P79-P84), all rats were pretreated with subcutaneous NIC injections (0.4 mg/kg base) 15 min before testing sessions. Following this initial ‘sensitization’ period, rats were tested with different NIC doses (0-1 mg/kg base) from P85-P92. During the sensitization period, NIC increased responding equally in both groups. However, during the dose-response testing, rats in the MPH group were more sensitive to the incentive motivational effects of NIC - the median effective dose was significantly lower for rats exposed to MPH in adolescence. The findings suggest that MPH may have limited reinforcement enhancing effects in adolescents. However, exposure to MPH during adolescents may increase the incentive motivational effects of NIC in adulthood.

A large portion of U.S. inmates and parolees experience co-occurring substance use and mental health disorders (COD). Offenders with COD exhibit significantly poorer outcomes than offenders who do not have COD, including less time to rearrest and reincarceration. Research shows that transition services for substance use and mental health disorders improve parolee outcomes, yet a majority of offenders with COD do not receive transition services prior to discharge or upon release from correctional facilities. Using a nationally representative sample of offenders with COD (secondary data from the CJ-DATS; N=811), this study analyzes the treatment effects of Transition Case Management (TCM) on parolees' drug use, rearrest, and reincarceration during the first nine months of parole, on a sample of offenders with COD. Results indicate there are no statistically significant differences between TCM treatment and control groups when predicting likelihood of rearrest, reincarceration, and drug use.

Magister Artium (Social Work) - MA(SW) / Substance abuse remains a debilitating social issue for many people in South Africa. It generally has a devastating effect on family life, and especially so when adolescents become dependent on substances, as it can have an adverse impact on their development. Interventions with adolescents include dealing with often complex developmental issues, dependence on family, and their support, which requires therapists to have special skills and patience to engage them in often complex treatment outcomes. The parent of a substance abusing adolescent is considered a role player in the aftercare of a substance abuse treatment programme as defined by the Prevention of and Treatment for Substance Abuse Act, 70 of 2008. The role of the parent is defined by their ability to monitor and supervise the adolescent and susceptible they are to adapt their parenting style to the suit the developmental needs of the child. The study sought to explore and describe the dynamics involved with parents and adolescents who have been through such a programme and how that can be utilised to influence their sobriety. This qualitative study, embedded in an exploratory descriptive research design, explored the role of the parent in the aftercare of their adolescent children who participated in a treatment programme for substance abuse. The population for this study included parents of adolescents who participated in a treatment programme for substance abuse and living in Port Elizabeth, Uitenhage and Despatch, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Purposive sampling was utilised to access 17 participants, and focus group, group and individual interviews were conducted as the data collection methods. The research interviews were transcribed and thematically analysed according to Moustakas (1994), and nine main themes emerged. The findings of the study will inform service providers and organs of State regarding the services needed to ensure continued support for adolescents who have been abusing substances. The main themes relating to the goal of the study were understanding the term ‘aftercare’, reflections on why adolescents were abusing substances, reflecting on experiences while the adolescent was abusing substances, parents’ experiences after the adolescent returned home, expectations of adolescents after treatment, parents’ views of what the adolescent in recovery needs, parental roles and responsibilities in recovery, informal support to the adolescent and his/her parents and descriptions of social workers in aftercare.

As a group, Native American youth have elevated rates of delinquency and substance use. However, research specifically examining the etiology of delinquency among Native American youth is sparse. In order to fill this gap, this study utilized a general strain theory (GST) framework integrated with feminist criminological insights and an indigenist stress-coping model (ISCM) to examine the impact of victimization as a source of strain (i.e., interpersonal victimization, sexual assault, and peer assault) on delinquent outcomes (i.e., violent and property delinquency, alcohol and marijuana use) among a sample of Native American youth attending school (and likely residing) on or near Indian reservations. This study utilized secondary data from the third wave of the Drug Use Among Young American Indians: Epidemiology and Prediction: 1993-2006 and 2009-2013 study (N = 2,457). Partial proportional odds (PPO) models were estimated to examine the potential non-linear effects of victimization on delinquency while ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were estimated to test the mediation and moderation hypotheses within GST. Models were estimated for the total sample and for males and females separately to assess for gender differences in GST processes. Special attention was paid to the role of Native American cultural identity as a moderator in the strain - delinquency relationship. Results indicate mixed support for hypotheses drawn from GST.

Military veterans are disproportionately represented in United States (U.S.) jails and prisons, with nearly 10% of current inmates being veterans. Veterans’ criminal justice involvement is often precipitated by underlying mental health and substance abuse that are connected to their military service. Veterans’ treatment courts are the judicial response to a need for more coordinated provision of mental health and substance abuse services to veterans involved in the criminal justice system. Modeled after drug courts and mental health courts, veterans treatment courts are a judicial innovation that aim to honor the service of veterans by providing them an alternative to incarceration. There are currently 551 veterans’ treatment courts in 42 states throughout country, including five in Kentucky. This exploratory descriptive study uses Andersen’s healthcare utilization model and a social control theoretical perspective as a framework to examine veterans’ treatment court outcomes from a sample of participants (N=58) in Kentucky. Univariate and bivariate analyses were used to provide a description of the sample and to examine relationships between personal characteristics and during-program occurrences and the outcomes of program completion and criminal recidivism. The findings of this study indicate that gender, sanctions, drug screens, and treatment sessions each have a significant association with program completion, and both age and housing status have a significant association with recidivism. Findings for each outcome variable are discussed, along with possible explanations, as well as limitations of the study, implications of this research for social work practice, and suggestions for future research.

This study was a quantitative survey and explored beliefs about substance abusing clients among sixty-three social work students. The study focused on the extent to which social work students display bias toward clients with a substance abuse disorder. The study also explored the attitudinal domains of permissiveness, treatment intervention, non-stereotypes, treatment optimism, and non-moralism. The study found that social work students who have taken a substance abuse education class are less like to attribute substance abuse addiction to a weak will in the client. The study recommends that future studies on beliefs about substance abusing clients among social work students include qualitative interviews to determine how substance abuse education reduces bias toward substance abusing clients among social work students.

The primary aim of this investigation was to explore caregivers’ emotional experiences regarding their adolescent with substance abuse problems. These researchers systematically examined the literature on caregiver stress and found a large body of studies on caregivers of persons with mental illness, severe medical problems including cancer, HIV/AIDS, and developmental disabilities. Yet, an absence of research was found on caregivers including parents of adolescents with drug and/or alcohol problems. Based on the findings on investigations with other types of caregivers, these researchers expected caregivers of adolescent substance abusers to report high levels of emotional and psychological distress. Like caregivers of persons with psychiatric problems, it was expected that caregivers would report feelings of hopelessness, anger, anxiety, worthlessness, depression, apathy, alienation, etc. It was also expected that caregivers would express feelings of failure as parents, guilt for not caring better for their adolescents, and frustrations with how this problem can affect the complete family system. A total of 12 caregivers, including parents, of adolescents with drug and/or alcohol problems were interviewed using a semi-structured interview composed of 20 questions related to their experience of caring for an adolescent with these problems. The interview was designed by these researchers and was based on a systematic review of the literature as well as the clinical experiences of these researchers. The study is considered a qualitative-ethnographic study and attempted to capture the personal and intimate challenges confronted by caregivers. The results yielded five salient themes that emerged from the interviews. They were: stress, hurt, disappointment, failure, and hope. In addition, “mini-themes” were also identified. The themes were distance, resistance, guilt, helplessness, and shame. As a result of these findings, recommendations for reaching out to caregivers, the provision of psychological assistance for caregivers, and future research were presented. In addition, the results led the researchers to discuss the challenges of caregivers, especially minority caregivers, in caring for and parenting adolescents with these problems. The results also prompted more questions that require further study. Finally, the researchers also made a series of recommendations for mental health and substance abuse professionals, especially social workers, in the assessment and treatment of families with this problem. In the end, it is the contention of these researchers that substance abuse problems among adolescents are not only an individual issue, but a family issue that requires intervention at the family systems level. Overall, the findings from this study supported the researchers’ assumptions that caregivers of adolescents with substance abuse problems would report high levels of stress, depression and worry, and also economic problems.