Thesis (M. S.)--Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. / Committee Chair: Meliopoulos, A. P. Sakis; Committee Member: Divan, Deepakraj M.; Committee Member: Harley, Ronald G.; Committee Member: Johnson, Ellis L.; Committee Member: Taylor, David G.

Γείωση είναι η αγώγιμη σύνδεση ενός σημείου κάποιου κυκλώματος ή ενός μη-ρευματοφόρου μεταλλικού αντικειμένου μιας εγκατάστασης με το έδαφος, με σκοπό να αποκτήσουν το ίδιο δυναμικό με τη γη, το οποίο θεωρείται -κατά σύμβαση- ίσο με μηδέν. Σκοπός του συστήματος γείωσης είναι να επιτυγχάνει την απαγωγή και διάχυση του κεραυνικού ρεύματος ή ρευμάτων βραχυκύκλωσης μέσα στη γη, με ταχύτητα και ασφάλεια, χωρίς να δημιουργούνται επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις στον περιβάλλοντα χώρο, που δύνανται να πλήξουν τον άνθρωπο, καθώς και να προκαλέσουν ανεπανόρθωτες βλάβες στον εξοπλισμό. Η απόδοση των συστημάτων γείωσης που υπόκεινται σε κρουστικά ρεύματα διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην ασφαλή και αξιόπιστη λειτουργία ενός συστήματος ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Η συμπεριφορά της αντικεραυνικής προστασίας των υποσταθμών, σχετίζεται με τα κρουστικά χαρακτηριστικά των διατάξεων γείωσης. Προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί η ορθή σχεδίαση του ηλεκτρικού συστήματος, σε ότι αφορά την προστασία των εγκαταστάσεων έναντι ανώμαλων γεγονότων, είναι θεμελιώδες και απολύτως απαραίτητο να προβλεφθεί η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά ενός συστήματος γείωσης, υπό την επίδραση κρουστικών κεραυνικών ρευμάτων, ή ρευμάτων σφάλματος. Αντικείμενο αυτής της εργασίας είναι η εξομοίωση της μεταβατικής συμπεριφοράς του πλέγματος γείωσης υποσταθμού ανύψωσης τάσης 20/150 kV στη Βοιωτία. Σκοπός της είναι η επιλογή του κατάλληλου μοντέλου που θα προσομοιώσει το πλέγμα λαμβάνοντας υπόψη το φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους, και μέσω του προγράμματος εξομοίωσης ATP-EMTP, γίνεται η εξομοίωση, απ’ όπου λαμβάνονται τα αποτελέσματα υπό μορφή γραφημάτων και μελετάται η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά του συστήματος γείωσης, στις περιπτώσεις πλήγματος κεραυνού, αλλά και σφάλματος στο μετασχηματιστή ισχύος. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται μια σύντομη περιγραφή των θεμάτων καθενός κεφαλαίου. Στο Πρώτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην έννοια της γείωσης, η εξοικείωση του αναγνώστη με βασικούς ορισμούς, αναφέρονται τα είδη και οι μέθοδοι γείωσης, καθώς επίσης οι τύποι των ηλεκτροδίων και οι βασικές διατάξεις γείωσης όπως προκύπτουν από τους διεθνείς κανονισμούς και τα ελληνικά πρότυπα. Στο Δεύτερο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα κύρια χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθη που σχετίζονται με την απόκριση ενός συστήματος γείωσης, τα οποία δεν είναι άλλα από την αντίσταση γείωσης, την ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους, την κρουστική σύνθετη αντίσταση και την κρίσιμη ένταση του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου. Στο Τρίτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εκτενής αναφορά στο φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους, αναλύοντας τους μηχανισμούς διάσπασης του εδάφους καθώς και τα μοντέλα βάσει των οποίων μοντελοποιείται το φαινόμενο. Στο Τέταρτο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα μοντέλα στα οποία βασιζόταν αρχικά η προσομοίωση των ηλεκτροδίων γείωσης, και στη συνέχεια γίνεται ανασκόπηση στη βιβλιογραφία και σε δημοσιεύσεις διαφόρων ερευνητών. Έπειτα αναφέρονται τα επικρατέστερα μοντέλα και οι αναλυτικές μέθοδοι που χρησιμοποιούνται σήμερα για την προσομοίωση των συστημάτων γείωσης. Επίσης για καθένα από τα μοντέλα αναφέρονται τα πλεονεκτήματα και μειονεκτήματα σε σχέση με τα υπόλοιπα μοντέλα. Στο Πέμπτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη παρουσίαση του προγράμματος εξομοίωσης ATP-EMTP, δίνοντας ιδιαίτερη σημασία στις εφαρμογές που χρησιμοποιούνται στην παρούσα εργασία. Στο Έκτο Κεφάλαιο επιλέγεται το μοντέλο προσομοίωσης, παρατίθενται τα στοιχεία του πλέγματος γείωσης του Υποσταθμού ανύψωσης τάσης, και ακολουθεί η εξομοίωση του. Στο Έβδομο Κεφάλαιο λαμβάνονται τα αποτελέσματα της εξομοίωσης υπό μορφή γραφημάτων, σε περίπτωση κεραυνικού πλήγματος στον Πυλώνα ή στους Ιστούς αντικεραυνικής προστασίας, αλλά και σε ενδεχόμενο σφάλμα στον μετασχηματιστή ισχύος. Εν συνεχεία σχολιάζονται και στο τέλος παρατίθενται οι παρατηρήσεις και τα συμπεράσματα. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν, εξάγεται το συμπέρασμα ότι το πλέγμα του συγκεκριμένου υποσταθμού είναι άρτια σχεδιασμένο και μπορεί να εγγυηθεί μια αξιόπιστη και ασφαλή λειτουργία. Αναφορικά με τον σχεδιασμό του συστήματος, γίνεται σαφές ότι όσο πιο πυκνό είναι το πλέγμα γείωσης, τόσο περισσότερο περιορίζεται η ανύψωση δυναμικού στα σημεία έγχυσης του ρεύματος κεραυνού καθώς και στα γειτονικά σημεία. Αυτό φαίνεται εάν συγκριθεί το γράφημα όπου ο κεραυνός πλήττει τον Πυλώνα (Vp=2,2kV), με το αντίστοιχο γράφημα όπου ο κεραυνός πλήττει τον ιστό 1 ή 3 (Vp=1,45kV). Το φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους κάνει αισθητή την παρουσία του κατά τις μεταβατικές καταστάσεις, γι’ αυτό και πρέπει να λαμβάνεται υπόψη στην εξομοίωση του συστήματος γείωσης, αφού επηρεάζει την τιμή της κάθετης ως προς τη γη χωρητικότητας και αγωγιμότητας. Ως εκ τούτου αυξάνονται νοητά οι διαστάσεις των αγωγών και έτσι μειώνεται η αντίσταση γείωσης και περιορίζεται η ανύψωση δυναμικού. Αξιοσημείωτο είναι το γεγονός ότι η μέγιστη τιμή της τάσης ανέρχεται στα 55kV στο σημείο έγχυσης, η οποία τείνει στο μηδέν για απόσταση μεγαλύτερη των 10-12 μέτρων. / Grounding is the conductive connection of a circuit’s point, or of a non-current carrying metallic object of an installation to the ground, in order to obtain the same potential as the earth, which is, by convention, equal to zero. The purpose of the grounding system is to successfully carry off and diffuse the lightning current or short-circuit currents into the earth, quickly and safely, without causing dangerous overvoltages in the surrounding area, which can affect humans, and cause irreparable damages to the equipment . The performance of grounding systems subjected to impulse currents, play an important role in safe and reliable operation of a power system. The behavior of lightning protection of substations, associated with impact characteristics of grounding arrangements. In order to achieve the proper design of the electrical power system, as regards the protection of installations against anomalous events, it is essential and absolutely necessary to predict the transient behavior of a grounding system under the influence of lightning current surge, or fault currents. The subject of this study is to simulate the transient behavior of the grounding grid of a voltage rise substation 20/150 kV in Viotia. Its aim is the selection of an appropriate model to simulate the grid, taking into account the effect of soil ionization, and simulation takes place using the simulation program ATP-EMTP, whence results are obtained in graphical form, and the transient behavior of the grounding system is studied in the case of a lightning strike, but also of a fault in the power transformer. Afterwards there is a brief description of each chapter topics. In the First Chapter there is an introduction to the meaning of grounding, the reader is acquainted with basic definitions, the types and the methods of grounding are mentioned, as well as the types of electrodes and the basic grounding rules as they derived from international regulations and Greek standards. In the Second Chapter, the main features items related to the response of a grounding system are presented, which are the ground resistance, the soil resistivity, the impulse impedance and the critical electric field strength. In the Third Chapter, a comprehensive reference to the phenomenon of soil ionization takes place, analyzing the mechanisms of soil breakdown, as well as the models on which the phenomenon modeling is based. In the Fourth Chapter, the models which the simulation of grounding electrodes was originally based on are presented, and then there is a review in the literature and in publications of various researchers. Afterwards, the prevailing models and the analytical methods that are currently used to simulate grounding systems are mentioned. Also, for each of the models, advantages and disadvantages are reported in comparison with the rest models. In the Fifth Chapter, a brief presentation of the simulation program ATP-EMTP is carried out, emphasizing on the applications that are used in this study. In the Sixth Chapter, the simulation model is selected, the details of the grounding grid of the voltage rise substation are given, and its simulation follows. In the Seventh Chapter, the results of the simulation are obtained in graphical form, in the case of a lightning strike on the pillar or on the lightning protection tissues, but also in a potential fault in the power transformer. Then results are discussed, and finally observations and conclusions are quoted. According to the results, it is concluded that the grid of this substation is well designed and can guarantee the reliable and safe operation. Regarding the system design, it is become clear that the more concentrated is the grounding grid, the more limited is the potential rise in the lightning current injection point and the surrounding area. This appears if someone compares the graph where the lightning strikes the pillar (Vp =2,2kV), with the corresponding graph that the lighting strikes Tissue 1 or 3 (Vp =1,45kV). The soil ionization effect is strongly presented during the transients, so it should be taken into account in the simulation of the grounding system, since it affects the value of the shunt capacitance and conductivity. Therefore, dimensions of the conductors are conceivably increased, so the potential rise is limited as result of the reduction of the grounding resistance. It is noteworthy that the peak voltage is 55kV at the injection point, which tends to zero for distances greater than 10-12 meters.

Metal encapsulation with compressed sulphur hexafluoride gas insulation has reduced the size of power substations and improved their reliability. Due to the superior insulating properties of this gas, its application in Gas Insulated Transmission lines (GITL) and Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) is increasing. Such systems invariably require solid support spacers for supporting high voltage conductors and for compartmentalizing sections of the systems. It has been found that, although the dielectric strength of sulphur hexafluoride is high compared to other gases, in the presence of a solid spacer, the dielectric integrity of the system is impaired. For DC GIS and GITL, free of any particulate contamination, anomalous flashover during a polarity reversal of the applied voltage has been attributed to charge accumulation on the spacer surface. The present work examines the effect of switching impulse voltages on the charge accumulation on support spacers in sulphur hexafluoride gas and the effect of AC precharging on impulse flashover. The charge accumulation on the spacer has been measured using a capacitive probe. A three-dimensional surface charge simulation technique has been developed to convert the probe potential measurements to an equivalent charge distribution. Electric field variation on the spacer surface due to this computed charge can be then obtained with this program. The results indicate that spacers acquire charges even under impulse voltage application in non-uniform field gaps. These charges affect the prebreakdown phenomenon and the breakdown behavior of spacer gaps. Under AC voltages, spacers in uniform fields do not acquire charges as has been reported by previous investigators. Under non-uniform field conditions however, AC precharging of spacers does affect the impulse flashover. The variation however, seems to fall within the statistical scatter of pure impulse flashover. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Electrical and Computer Engineering, Department of / Graduate

District heating delivers more than 70% of the energy used for heating and domestichot water in Swedish buildings. To stay competitive, district heating needs toreduce its losses and increase capabilities to utilise low grade heat. Finding faultysubstations is one way to allow reductions in supply temperatures in district heatingnetworks, which in turn can help reduce the losses. In this work three suggestedsymptoms of faults: abnormal quantization, drifting and anomalous values, are investigatedwith the help of hourly meter data of: heat load, volume flow, supplyand return temperatures from district heating substations. To identify abnormalquantization, a method is proposed based on Shannon’s entropy, where lower entropysuggests higher risk of abnormal quantization. The majority of the substationsidentified as having abnormal quantization with the proposed method has a meterresolution lower than the majority of the substations in the investigated districtheating network. This lower resolution is likely responsible for identifying thesesubstation, suggesting the method is limited by the meter resolution of the availabledata. To improve result from the method higher resolution and sampling frequencyis likely needed.For identifying drift and anomalous values two methods are proposed, one for eachsymptom. Both methods utilize a software for predicting hourly heat load, volumeflow, supply and return temperatures in individual district heating substations.The method suggested for identifying drift uses the mean value of each predictedand measured quantity during the investigated period. The mean of the prediction iscompared to the mean of the measured values and a large difference would suggestrisk of drift. However this method has not been evaluated due to difficulties infinding a suitable validation method.The proposed method for detecting anomalous values is based on finding anomalousresiduals when comparing the prediction from the prediction software to themeasured values. To find the anomalous residuals the method uses an anomalydetection algorithm called IsolationForest. The method produces rankable lists inwhich substations with risk of anomalies are ranked higher in the lists. Four differentlists where evaluated by an experts. For the two best preforming lists approximatelyhalf of the top 15 substations where classified to contain anomalies by the expertgroup. The proposed method for detecting anomalous values shows promising resultespecially considering how easily the method could be added to a district heatingnetwork. Future work will focus on reducing the number of false positives. Suggestionsfor lowering the false positive rate include, alternations or checks on theprediction models used.

No description available.

Modern power substations continue to use hardware that is dated and resistant to modernization. This document discusses the basics of substations, identifies their weaknesses, and suggests a method of improvement. This suggestion implements a centralized protection and control system to make the overall system more robust and flexible to the ever changing power system landscape. / Master of Science / The infrastructure that connects electrical power generators to consumers utilizes a wide range of equipment to safely and reliably prevent interruption to service. New distributed power technologies have been introduced to the power system, such as solar panels, wind farms, and home batteries, which have caused the way this system become more dynamic then it has in the past. Most of these changes have occurred on the generation and consumption sides of the system, but the equipment that connects those two sides have not evolved very much in the last 50 years. This document explores some of the problems that this can cause and discusses a method to improve called Centralized Protection and Control.

Causes and effects of partial discharges (PD) inside electrical high-voltage insulation was studied prior to taking measurements with a PDS100 spectralanalyser during excursions to a number of substations in the Swedish electrical grid.This to develop a working-method and manual for workers to use periodically whileon site to be able to identify components on which maintenance is needed. Noprominent signs of PD was measured during the excursions although with materialfrom previous measurements showing PD, provided by the manufacturer of thePDS100, a manual to use in the field could be developed.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar o desenvolvimento e a implementacao em uma rotina computacional, de algoritmos para a localizacao de faltas em linhas de transmissao com subestacoes conectadas em derivacao. Os algoritmos propostos neste trabalho integram uma metodologia para localizacao de faltas, que e capaz de identificar corretamente o ponto de ocorrencia do defeito utilizando as componentes de fase dos fasores de tensoes e correntes, calculadas atraves dos registros desses sinais, efetuados por oscilografos digitais e/ou reles de protecao instalados nos terminais da linha de transmissao. Alem disso, a metodologia para localizacao de faltas tem acesso aos parametros eletricos da linha e informacoes sobre o tipo de ligacao e o carregamento dos transformadores conectados aos terminais das derivacoes. Este trabalho apresenta tambem o desenvolvimento dos modelos para os elementos do sistema de transmissao, em componentes de fase. Estes modelos sao utilizados pelos algoritmos que integram a metodologia para localizacao de faltas. / This research presents the development and implementation in a computational routine, of algorithms for fault location in multi-terminal transmission lines. The algorithms proposed in this work are part of a fault location methodology, which is capable of correctly identifying the fault point based on voltage and current phase components. The voltage and current phasors are calculated using measurements of voltage and current signals from intelligent electronic devices, located on the transmission line terminals. The algorithms have access to the electrical parameters of the transmission lines and to information about the transformers loading and their connection type. This work also presents the development of phase component models for the transmission system elements used by the fault location algorithms, that are part of the fault location methodology.

Nas subestações das grandes concessionárias de distribuição de energia elétrica coexistem sistemas de proteção com diferentes tecnologias, formados por relés eletromecânicos, estáticos e digitais, que, em alguns casos, continuarão funcionando por algumas décadas. Essa diversidade de tecnologias implica em sistemas com características de hardware e software diferentes, o que dificulta a implantação de funcionalidades locais e remotas que sejam interoperáveis. Dessa forma, torna-se interessante desenvolver um sistema baseado nas diferentes plataformas de proteção do mercado, com o objetivo de integrar as informações dos relés de proteção de diferentes tecnologias e que se comunicam através de protocolos distintos, criando uma base de dados homogênea. Para isso é necessário realizar uma coleta de dados provenientes dos vários relés de proteção e disponibilizar as informações do sistema de proteção para uma base de dados, através de uma interface de protocolos, onde essas informações possam ser tratadas de maneira uniforme e organizadas de forma estruturada, otimizando a funcionalidade local da instalação e podendo alimentar um sistema central de gestão. / In substations of large electric power distribution companies coexist protection systems with different technologies, comprised of electromechanical, static and digital relays that, in some cases, will continue to work for a few decades. This technology diversity implies in systems with different features of hardware and software, which hampers the implementation of local and remote functionalities that are interoperable. It would be interesting to develop a system based on integrated functional use of different protection platforms on the market, aiming to integrate the information of protective relays from different technologies that communicate with different protocols, creating a homogeneous database. It would be necessary a collection of data from the various protection relays that, through an interface protocols, provide information from the protection system for a database where information can be treated uniformly and organized in a structured manner, optimizing the local functionalities and feeding a central management system.

Nos Sistemas de Automação de Subestação atuais são utilizados equipamentos digitais chamados IED (Dispositivos Eletrônicos Inteligentes), incorporando as funções de proteção, automação e medição. Estes, para trocarem informações entre si, utilizam um canal de comunicação serial, sendo os dados transmitidos de forma digital por meio de vários protocolos, muitos deles proprietários, o que dificulta a integração entre eles. Neste cenário entra a norma IEC 61850 oferecendo um padrão a ser seguido entre os fabricantes de IED. Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar um estudo da norma e a análise de sua aplicação no Sistema de Automação de Subestação. O estudo proposto da norma a analisará utilizando os principais conceitos estabelecidos por ela para atingir os objetivos propostos: interoperabilidade, liberdade de configuração e estabilidade a longo prazo. Como ensaio de aplicação da norma será apresentado um comparativo com um protocolo utilizado atualmente e a implementação de funções de proteção. No comparativo entre protocolos foi escolhido o DNP3, um dos mais utilizados atualmente no setor elétrico, com o objetivo de verificar as principais diferenças entre eles e vantagens de cada um. Para a implementação de funções de proteção foram escolhidos dois exemplos: a falha de disjuntor e o bloqueio reverso, implementadas da forma tradicional, por meio de sinais elétricos de comando transmitidos por cabos, e por meio dos serviços de mensagens prioritárias da IEC 61850, com o objetivo de analisar suas dinâmicas, seus tempos de atuação e o comportamento frente a eventuais defeitos. / In current Substation Automation System, digital equipaments called IED (Intelligent Electronic Devices) are used with protection, automation and measurement functions incorporated. These devices, to exchange information among them, use serial communication buses with information transmitted in digital form through many procotols, many of them proprietary, making their integration very hard. In this scene, IEC61850 standard appears offering a standard to be followed by IED manufacturers. This research presents a IEC 61850 standard study and an analysis of its application in Substation Automation System. The proposed study will analise the standard through the most important topics used by the standard to reach its main goals: interoperability, free configuration and long-term stability. In the application analysis, a comparative with a protocol used nowadays and a implementation of protection functions will be presented. In the comparative between protocols the chosen was DNP3, one of most used protocols in electric plants, with the purpose of verifying the main diferences and advantages of each one. Two examples of protection functions implementation were chosen: breaker failure and reverse blocking, implemented through traditional techniques, using wires and electrical signals, and through high performance IEC 61850 services, with the purpose of analising their dynamics, their actuation times and their behavior in eventual failures.