Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Developing sustainable forests has been acknowledged to be important, not just as a way of averting deforestation and land degradation, but as another opportunity to contribute positively towards rural development, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Forestry development has, however, not received the recognition it deserves. Its importance to economic development and its potential contribution have not been explicitly communicated and thus remain undervalued. The long rotations required for trees to mature, plus the associated risk from fires, pests and diseases has affected the sector’s ability to attract investment. In South Africa this reluctance is evident in both the public and private sectors alike. Access to finance for forestry remains a challenge, which negatively affects the supply to the processing part of the value chain. The objective of the study is to review current forestry funding mechanisms in South Africa, specifically plantations and their contributions to rural economic development. Using secondary data, the study reviewed the current sector funding from the state, development funding institutions and the private sector. The study also looked at alternative sources used in other countries and how they can be customised to the South African economy. In this study it was found that there are gaps between policies aimed at the development of the sector on the one hand, and the resources allocated to the sector on the other hand. The available schemes fail to support the sector policies’ objectives. These discrepancies can be attributed to the poor design of the current offering, the development of which failed to fully consider the dynamics of the sector. The conclusion of the study was that the government needs to play more of a leading role in developing the sector, especially with the small-scale growers who cannot be catered for by both commercial and development banks. The sector also stands to benefit significantly from better collaboration between the public and private sectors. Policies that create an enabling environment would also encourage the private sector to invest more. The study also suggested that, in view of the dynamics of the sector and its contribution to climate change risk mitigation, there is room to tap innovative funding such as that offered by environmental funding.

Thesis (PhD (For))--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study aims to evaluate the effects of forestry policy on the sustainability of forest resources in Southern Africa. However, the study has confirmed that forestry policy does not operate independently of other policies. Its scope is defined by overarching framework legislation and policy, while it functions within a complex mesh of crosscutting and sectoral policies. Therefore, the implications of these external policies for forest conservation have also been assessed. The method used employs predominantly qualitative assessment of documentary data, which constitute the main contents of the three case studies: South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia. This qualitative information has been transformed into quantitative data, using a scoring scale of one to five for certain indicators of sustainable forest management (SFM). The average score for each country makes up a forest conservation index (FCI), which provides a comprehensive insight into the performance of a country's forestry and other resource conservation policies. South Africa's FCI is estimated at 3, while Tanzania and Zambia's indices have been rounded to 2 each. As South Africa's forestry policy and other biological resource conservation policies came into existence as recent as the mid- and late 1990s, this index suggests that these policies will lead to SFM subject to satisfactory implementation. Indeed, South Africa has a congruous forestry legislation whose regulatory mechanisms are appropriately blended with financial and framework incentives. Its overarching framework legislation and policy define forestry policy, while the crosscutting policies reinforce it. However, the country's performance on intergovernmental and intersectoral policy co-ordination is poor, as well as on the economic valuation of its natural forest resources. Furthermore, the formulation of South Africa's forestry policy was not founded on up-to-date forest resource data. Contrary to the South African case, Tanzania and Zambia's indices indicate the likelihood of unsustainable forest use and management. These countries' existing forestry and other resource conservation policy-making processes are narrow-based and gender-insensitive, rendering them unpopular among policyaffected and policy-connected stakeholders. These inappropriate policies and their blunt instruments distort markets for forest resources, i.e., create situations in which benefits are dissociated from costs, prices from scarcities, rights from responsibilities and actions from consequences. Both forestry policies and their governing tools were not founded on contemporary forest resource data, i.e., they are not issue centred. The countries' framework laws have also failed to institutionalise environmental impact assessment, monitoring and evaluation, intersectoral policy co-ordination, participatory approaches to natural resource management and ownership of environmental assets such as land and forest resources by local communities. The administration of forestry policy requires competent professional and technical staff. South Africa has adequate human resources in the forestry sector, although the personnel appear to lack the necessary skills for participatory forest management for poverty reduction. Tanzania has adequate but ineffective forestry personnel, resutting in lack of law enforcement and corruption while Zambia lacks professional staff to interpret and implement the existing forestry policy. The ineffectiveness and the lack of professional and technical staff, inter alia, is reflected in the high rates of deforestation, which have been estimated at 91,000 halannum for Tanzania and 851,000 halannum for Zambia. Unlike South Africa, both Tanzania and Zambia's sectoral policies fail to cultivate concerns for forest conservation. This situation is aggravated further by the pervasive lack of intra- and intersectoral policy coordination among biological resource conservation divisions and departments. The coherence of South Africa's forestry and other resource conservation policies is attributable to the scarcity of natural forests in the country. Approximately, 7.0% of South Africa's landscape is under forest cover, while Tanzania and Zambia have 37% and 42%, respectively. Decreasing supplies of forest coupled with the increasing demands for forest resources causes the value of forest resources to appreciate. Naturally, there is a stronger need for the forest-scarce South Africa to pursue prudent conservation policies to protect its limited forest than Tanzania and Zambia whose governments treat their respective vast land and forest resources as a safety valve for economic hardship without adequate investment in SFM. In summary, forest resource use and management in Tanzania and Zambia are littered by market and policy failures. It is envisaged that the opportunities and constraints identified in each market and policy failure will inform future forestry and related policy-making process, not only in the concerned countries but also in other African countries experiencing similar forest conservation problems. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie het ten doel om die effekte te evalueer wat bosboubeleid het op die volhoubaarheid van woudhulpbronne in Suidelike Afrika. Hierdie studie het egter bevestig dat bosboubeleid nie onafhanklik van ander beleidspunte funksioneer nie. Die omvang daarvan word gedefinieer deur oorkoepelende raamwerkwetgewing en beleid, terwyl dit binne 'n komplekse netwerk van oorkruisende en sektorale beleid funksioneer. Daaom is die implikasies van hierdie eksteme beleidspunte vir woudbewaring ook bepaal. Die metode gebruik, wend hoofsaaklik kwalitatiewe beraming van dokumentere data aan, wat die hoofinhoud van die drie gevallestudies, nl. Suid-Afrika, Tanzania en Zambia uitrnaak. Hierdie kwalitatiewe informasie is omvorm na kwantitatiewe data, deur gebruik te maak van 'n skaal van een tot vyf vir sekere indikators van vohoubae bosbestuur (VBB). Die gemiddelde punt vir elke land vorm 'n woudbewaringsindeks (WBI), wat 'n omvatlende insig verskaf van die land se uitvoering van die bosbou- en bewaringsbeleid van ander hulpbronne. Suid-Afrika se WBI is beraam op 3, terwyl Tanzania en Zambia sa indekse elk tot 2 afgerond is. Siende dat Suid-Afrika se bosbou- en bewainqsoeleld van ander biologiese hulpbronne eers so onlangs as die middel- en laat 1990's in werking getree het, stel hierdie indeks voor dat die beleid sal lei tot VBB, onderhewig aan bevredigende uitvoering daarvan. Suid-Afrika het inderdaad 'n gepaste bosboubeleid, waarvan die regulerende meganismes toepaslik vermeng is met finensiele en raamwerk aansporings. Die oorkoepelende raamwerkwetgewing en beleid definieer bosboubeleid, terwyl oorkruisende beleidspunte dit versterk. Die land se uitvoering van interregerings- en intersektorale beleidkoordinasie, is egter swak, asook in die ekonomiesa waardering van sy natuurlike woudhulpbronne. Verder, is die formulering van Suid-Afrika se bosboubeleid nie gegrond op woudhulpbrondata wat op hoogte was nie. In teenstelling met die Suid-Afrikaanse geval, toon die indeksa van Tanzania en Zcrnbia die waCl'skynlikheid van onvomoubae bosbenutting en -bestuur. Hierdie lande se bestaande beleidvormingsprosasse vir bosbou en bewaring van ander hulpbronne, is eng-gebaseer en geslags-onsensitief, wat dit onpopulsr maak onder beleidgeaffekteerde en beleidverbonde insethouers. Hierdie ontoepaslike beleidspunte en stomp instrumente verdraai markte vir woudhulpbronne, d.i. skep situasies waarin voordele gedissosieer is van kostes, pryse van skaashed, regte van verantwoordelikhede en aksies van nagevolge. Beide bosboubeleidspunte en die leidingsinstrumente is nie gegrond op kontemporere woudhulpbrondata nie, d.w.s. hulle is nie rondom die kwessie gesentreer nie. Die lande se raamwerkwette het ook gefaal daarin om omgewingsimpakberamings, monitering en evaluering, intersektorale beleidkoordinering, deelnemende benaderings tot natuurlike hulpbronbestuur en plaaslike gemeenskappe sa eienaaskai van omgewingsbates, SODS grond en woudhulpbronne in te stel. Die administrasie van bosboubeleid verg bevoegde professionele en tegniese personeel. Sui-Afrika het voldoende menslike hulpbronne in die bosbousektor, hoewel dit voorkom of die personeel nie die nodige vaadiqhede het vir deelnemende bosbestuur vir die veligting van arnoede nie. Tanzanie het voldoende, maa oneffektiewe bosboupersoneel, wat 'n gebrek aan wetstoepassing en korrupsie tot gevolg het, terwyl Zambie 'n tekort het aan professionele personeel om die bestaande bosboubeleid te interpreteer en te implementeer. Die oneffektiwiteit en die gebrek aan professionele en tegniese personeel, onder andere, word gerefiekteer in die hoe tempo van ontbossing, wat beraam is op 91,000 ha/jaCl'vir Tenzenie en 851,000 ha/jaCl'vir Zembie. Anders as Suid-Afrika, faal beide Tanzanie en Zambia se sektorale beleidspunte daain om belange vir woudbewaring te kweek. Hierdie situasie word verder vererger deur die deurdringende gebrek aan intra- en intersektorale beleidkoordinering onder afdelings en departemente van biologiese hulpbronbewaring. Die verband tussen Suid-Afrika se bosbou- en bewaringsbeleid van ander hulpbronne word toegeskryf aan die skaarsheid van natuurlike woude in die land. Ongeveer 7.0% van die Suid-Afrikaanse landskap is bedek met woude, terwyl Tanzanie en Zambia onderskeidelik 37% en 42% bedek is. Verlaagde voorraad van woude, gepaard met die toenemende vraag na woudhulpbronne, het tot gevolg dat die waade van woudhulpbronne styg. Natuurlik is daar 'n groter behoefte vir die woud-arm Suid-Afrika om verstandige bewaingsbeleid na te streef om sy beperkte woude te beskerm as Tanzanie en Zambie, waa hulle regerings hul onderskeie ge\Yeldigegrond en woudhulpbronne behandel as 'n veiligheidsklep vir ekonomiese ontbering, sonder voldoende belegging in VBB. As opsomming, is die benutting en bestuur van woudhulpbronne in Tanzania en Zambia met mark- en beleidsmislukking besaai. Dit word beoog dat die geleenthede en beperkinge wat met elke mark- en beleidsmislukking ge'identifiseer is, toekomstige bosbou en verwante beleidvormingsproses kan inlig, nie net in die betrokke lande nie, maar ook in ander Afrika lande wat soortgelyke woudbewarings probleme ondervind.

Univ., Diss.--Bern, 1996.

Thesis (MscFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The state owned and managed forest and woodland resources during the colonial and postindependence periods in Mozambique. However, the centralised government forestry policies failed to stop the continual loss of natural forest and woodland resources under the state control. This study is concerned with the sustainability of a cimbirre (Androstachys johnson iidominated) woodland in a rural part of Mozambique. A. johnsonii trees are the major source of subsistence and income generation in southern Mozambique. Nevertheless, the exploitation of the species is running illegally because the diameters used for poles are below the harvestable diameter limit defined by the forestry legislation. This study is part of the research activities of a community-based natural resources management project being implemented in the Mabote District. The study focuses on the four villages covered by this project funded by the Government of Finland. It intends to develop guidelines for sustainable management of the woodland which is of a great concern to the rural woodland-dependent communities. The study examines the socio-economic context of commercial harvesting of A. johnsonii trees for poles by local communities, as well as the sustainability of the woodland resources concerned, especially with respect to the setting of minimum harvestable diameter limits. It is assumed that the current deliberate burning of cimbirre woodlands to kill the desired species would cease once a sustainable diameter limit is established. Three methods are used to respond to the objectives of the study, namely: (1) Semi-structured interviews and group discussions with key informants; (2) Structured questionnaire surveys submitted to households randomly selected within the four villages being studied; and (3) Forest resource assessment. The literature review documents the theoretical issues of sustainable management of natural resources and forest in particular, both past and present. It indicates that a state-community partnership should be considered for sustainable management of the area. It is also valid for communal areas in Mozambique in general, where the government legally controls forest resources. The implementation of the structural adjustment programme that Mozambique currently pursues, allied to the retrenchments in the gold mining industry in South Africa and the abolishment of recruitment of Mozambican labourers in the South African mining industry, have transformed the traditional forms of rural livelihoods. These measures provide rather large incentives for private interests to exploit poles for commercial purposes. Findings of this study based on the forest resource assessment provide an ecological basis for allowing harvesting of juvenile trees of A. johnsonii for poles by local communities, because the current level of harvesting trees does not lead to woodland degradation. Besides, the centralised policies that governed the allocation of forest resources both in colonial and postindependent Mozambique have transformed traditional authorities. This has led to a confusion of roles and conflicting power in forest management. Key words: Community involvement, deforestation, sustainable natural forest management. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende die koloniale en post-onafhanklike periode in Mosambiek is die woude en bosland hulpbronne deur die staat beheer en besit. Dié gesentraliseerde regeringsbeleide het egter nie die voortdurende verlies aan natuurlike hulpbronne onder staatsbeheer gestop nie. Hierdie studie handle oor die volhoubaarheid van 'n cimbirre (Androstachys johnson ii-dominated) inheemse bos in 'n landelike deel van Mosambiek. A. johnsonii bome is die hoofbron van bestaan en inkomstegenerering in die suidelike deel van Mosambiek. Nogtans word dié spesie onwettiglik uitgebuit omdat die deursnee vir pale onder die oesbare minimum deursnee is, soos bepaal deur bosbouwetgewing. Dié studie vorm deel van die navorsingsaktiwiteite van 'n gemeenskapsbeheerde, natuurlike hulpbron bestuursprojek wat tans geïmplementeer word in die Mabote Distrik. Die fokus van dié studie is vier dorpies wat gedek word deur die projek. Die doelwit is om riglyne te ontwikkel vir die volhoubare bestuur van die bosgebied wat 'n groot bron van bekommernis is vir die landelike gemeenskappe wat van die bos afhanklik is. Die studie ondersoek die sosioekonomiese konteks vir die kommersiële oes van A. johnsonii bome vir pale deur die plaaslike gemeenskappe, sowel as die volhoubaarheid van die bosebied se hulpbronne hier betrokke, veral met die oog op die bepaling van 'n minimum deursnee beperking vir oesdoeleindes. Dit word aanvaar dat die huidige doelbewuste brand van cimbirre boslande, om die gewenste spesies dood te maak, beeïndig sal word as 'n volhoubare deursnee limiet vasgestel word. Dit sal gedoen word met behulp van insette deur die afhanklike gemeenskappe. Drie metodes is gebruik om die doelwitte van die studie te behaal; (1) Semigestruktureerde onderhoude en groepbesprekings met kerninformante; (2) Getruktureerde vraelys opname wat aan lukraak geselekteerde huishoudings binne die vier dorpies (wat deel maak van studie) gegee is; en (3) Hulpbronwaardering in die bos. Die literatuurstudie dokumenteer die teoretiese kwessies oor die volhoubare bestuur van natuurlike hulpbronne en dan spesifiek woude, beide in die verlede en in die huidige situasie. Die gevolgtrekking is dat 'n staatgemeenskapsvennootskap oorweeg moet word vir die volhoubare bestuur van die area. Dit geld ook in die algemeen vir die kommunale areas in Mosambiek, waar die regering wettiglik woudhulpbronne beheer. Die implementering van strukturele aanpassings programme tans in Mosambiek, asook die afdankings in die goudmynindustrie in Suid-Afrika en die beeïndiging aan die werwing van Mosambiekse arbeiders deur Suid-Afrika, het tradisionele vorms van landelike broodwinning getransformeer. Dit lei weer tot die misbruik van pale vir kommersiële doeleindes, deur die privaat sektor. Bevindings uit dié studie, gebaseer op die woudhulpbron waarderings, verskaf 'n ekologiese basis vir die oes van jong A. johnsonii bome vir pale deur die plaaslike gemeenskappe, want die huidige vlak van oes van dié bome lei nie tot boslandagteruitgang nie. Boonop het die gesentraliseerde beleide wat die toekenning van woudhulpbronne beheer, in beide 'n koloniale Mosambiek en 'n post-onafhanklike Mosambiek, tradisionele gesagsstrukture getransformeer. Dit het gelei tot 'n verwarring in rolle en 'n konflik in mag in inheemse bosbestuur. Key words: Deforestasie, gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid, volhoubare natuurlike bosbestuur.

Thesis submitted to the Division of Arts. Bibliography: p. 273-289.

As the past century’s technological development has progressed the Swedish boreal forests have transformed into dense, highly productive, homogenous and coniferous forests. The area around Saxdalen in Ludvika municipality has long been dominated forests which have been heavily worked since the 18th century. There are in Ludvika 119 000 hectares of productive forest land. Around 70 percent are owned by forest companies and 20 by private forest owners. The forestry is governed by national laws and instructions from the Swedish Forest Agency. Foresters may also choose to abide by certification systems such as FSC and PEFC. 80 percent of Swedish productive forest is certified. This thesis is based on literature review and 8 field studies of regeneration fellings in Saxdalen. The purpose of this thesis is to understand to what degree environmental considerations are taken during regeneration fellings to preserve biodiversity. The focus of the thesis has been the preservation of storm sturdy trees, deciduous trees and standing dread trees, larger tree stumps and protected zones around watercourses. The protected zones were found severely lacking in practically all the observed fellings. The quality the trees preserved varied greatly between the fellings. In this study there were no found links between the ownership form or certification system and the considerations taken during regeneration fellings. A lot of parties are involved in fellings and those responsible aren’t always in full control. The work of preserving boreal forests resilience and biodiversity must be conducted in more strategic and coordinated fashion. There must be common criteria and strategies for large forest areas so that species can spread and survive the forestry, especially considering future climate change.

In response to the current "crisis in the British Columbia forest industry, communities, academics, non-profit organizations, and government agencies and departments are exploring alternative strategies for the management of the forested ecosystems of the province, and for maintaining livelihoods in forest-dependent communities. The focus of the thesis is one such strategy, community forestry, specifically the planning strategies and principles that the Revelstoke Community Forest Corporation utilizes in its management of local forests. Community forestry has been used world-wide to manage the interface between human communities and local forested ecosystems. In addition to various social and economic considerations, the community forest model has been posed by many in British Columbia as the most promising means to enhance the planning for ecological sustainability of forest-based communities, and of forestry in general. This assertion is based on a number of assumed benefits considered inherent to the community forest model. The thesis explores whether and how the following proposed ecological benefits of the community forest model have been actualized in the case study: 1) Community involvement with the forest will create a sense of care for and connection with local forests; 2) a closed circle of environmental, economic, and social costs and benefits will yield enhanced stewardship because the community must live with its decisions over the long term; 3) community members will recognize that the forest is more than a timber provider; they will have a "wholistic" appreciation of it; 4) forest planning will be improved by local ecological knowledge, local feedback loops, and administrative flexibility; together, these create the conditions for effective adaptive management; and 5) the above factors will lead to improved forest practices, ecologically speaking. The thesis shows how, in the Revelstoke case, these theorized benefits have not been fully realized. In concluding, the author suggests that local factors - such as community values, goals, an assumptions - could overwhelm any "inherent" benefits of the model in regards to ecological sustainability.

Structural retention harvesting represents one of the most important recent silvicultural innovations and is widely practiced in the harvesting of mature boreal stands. Following structural retention harvests, mortality of retained trees is often dramatically elevated compared to pre-harvest stands. I examined tree mortality following structural retention harvests in the southeastern Yukon Territory, using dendrochronological techniques to quantify annual mortality. I estimated integrated losses in the first five years to be at least 17.3% of retained stems. Analysis of mortality type showed that windthrow was the most important post-harvest mortality mechanism. This study represents the first analysis of mortality responses following structural retention harvests in the northern extent of operational forestry in Canada. Rates of post-harvest tree mortality observed in this study are among the highest reported to date from managed Canadian boreal forests, indicating that greater attention must be given to post-harvest stand responses if sustainable forestry practices are desired.

Structural retention harvesting represents one of the most important recent silvicultural innovations and is widely practiced in the harvesting of mature boreal stands. Following structural retention harvests, mortality of retained trees is often dramatically elevated compared to pre-harvest stands. I examined tree mortality following structural retention harvests in the southeastern Yukon Territory, using dendrochronological techniques to quantify annual mortality. I estimated integrated losses in the first five years to be at least 17.3% of retained stems. Analysis of mortality type showed that windthrow was the most important post-harvest mortality mechanism. This study represents the first analysis of mortality responses following structural retention harvests in the northern extent of operational forestry in Canada. Rates of post-harvest tree mortality observed in this study are among the highest reported to date from managed Canadian boreal forests, indicating that greater attention must be given to post-harvest stand responses if sustainable forestry practices are desired.

Extensive mill closures by industrial forestry companies in forestry-dependent towns in British Columbia, have, in many cases, resulted in effectively eliminating the local primary industry. Communities have lost the economic and social base that sustains families, the municipal tax base and the local retail market, and the local forest expertise has been forced to look elsewhere for work. Many communities around the world have developed viable community forestry frameworks and successful operations as a means of addressing sustainability, social and economic issues. While a number of community forestry supports are available in B.C., many communities continue to experience difficulties establishing viable forestry operations. This research will examine the broad-spectrum and site-specific challenges faced by three designated B.C. communities at different stages along the continuum toward successful operations, and will propose strategies aimed at overcoming the barriers to their success.