Les effecteurs TAL (« Transcription Activator-Like ») sont des protéines présentes majoritairement chez les bactéries phytopathogènes du genre Xanthomonas. Ces protéines bactériennes sont dirigées vers le noyau des cellules de la plante hôte où elles induisent l’expression de gènes. L’induction de gènes de « susceptibilité » de la plante est responsable de la maladie. Les effecteurs TAL sont capables de se lier à l’ADN grâce à un motif particulier consistant en une série de répétitions quasi-identiques s’enroulant autour de l’ADN et formant une super-hélice. Au sein des répétitions deux acides aminés localisés à l’intérieur de chaque boucle de la super-hélice interagissent directement et spécifiquement avec les nucléotides. Des combinaisons différentes de ces deux acides aminés se lient spécifiquement à certains nucléotides, selon un code unique.Une conséquence de cette interaction étroite est que les plantes et les bactéries co-évoluent selon une course aux armements où le génome de la plante se diversifie pour éviter d’être la cible des effecteurs TAL, tandis que les gènes tal se diversifient pour s’adapter à de nouvelles cibles. Les aspects évolutifs des effecteurs TAL sont encore largement inconnus, notamment comment la spécificité évolue vers de nouvelles cibles végétales. Cette thèse présente les premiers travaux sur la compréhension des mécanismes évolutifs des gènes tal, principalement abordés par la bioinformatique. Nous avons développé la suite de programmes « QueTAL » qui permet d’une part la construction d’arbres phylogénétiques basés soit sur la séquence des répétitions, soit sur la séquence des sites cibles, d’autre part la recherche de motifs de répétitions pouvant constituer les unités évolutives des effecteurs TAL. Cette suite bioinformatique est publique, en ligne, et activement utilisée par la communauté des scientifiques travaillant sur les effecteurs TAL des Xanthomonas.Ces programmes ont été appliqués (ainsi que d’autres approches) à plus de 900 séquences d’effecteurs TAL de 22 groupes bactériens. Nous avons mis en évidence i) une perte de diversité dans les répétitions chez les Xanthomonas, qui aurait des conséquence sur l’évolution de la structure des effecteurs TAL; ii) l’existence de groupes fonctionnels de gènes tal spécifiques à certains pathovars ; iii) un probable mécanisme évolutif reposant sur la recombinaison (principalement par conversion génique), révélé par le gain ou la perte de répétitions en blocs entiers. Notre hypothèse est que le moteur de la spécialisation des effecteurs TAL est la recombinaison de ces blocs entre gènes conduisant à une diversification fonctionnelle rapide vers de nouvelles cibles végétales.Nous avons ensuite analysé plus en détail la diversité des séquences TAL de souches africaines de Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), agent de la bactériose vasculaire, maladie bactérienne la plus importante du riz. Nous avons montré qu’un gène tal résultant d’une conversion génique pouvait être fonctionnel, indiquant que ce mécanisme peut être un moteur évolutif chez les effecteurs TAL. Les données de transcriptomique et de gain de fonction ont permis de mettre en évidence un effecteurs TAL dont la virulence s’exerce par l’activation de deux gènes de susceptibilité, dont l’un n’avait jamais été décrit chez Xoo. Enfin nous présentons des résultats préliminaires sur les effets d’une déconstruction de TALome sur le transcriptome de riz ainsi que des travaux fonctionnels et évolutifs issus de collaborations sur d’autres Xanthomonas.Cette thèse offre un nouveau cadre conceptuel ainsi que de nouveaux outils pour l’analyse fonctionnelle et évolutive des effecteurs TAL qui devraient améliorer la mise au point de stratégies pour la résistance des plantes aux Xanthomonas. / Transcription activator-like (TAL) effectors are proteins found mainly in the genus of Xanthomonas phytopathogenic bacteria. These proteins enter the nucleus of cells in the host plant and can induce the expression of genes. The induction of “susceptibility” S genes in the plant will result in disease. TAL effectors are able to bind DNA thanks to a unique motif consisting of a series of nearly-identical repeats that wrap around the DNA forming a super-helix, in each repeat two amino-acids found in a loop on the inner side of the helix directly interact with nucleotides. Different combination of amino-acids in this loop bind specific nucleotides following a unique code.A consequence of this tight interaction is that plants and bacteria co-evolve following an arms race where the plant genome diversifies to avoid being targeted by the TAL effectors, while tal effector genes diversify to adapt to new targets.Various aspects of TAL effector evolution are still unknown, specially how does specificity arise towards certain targets in the host plant? As first steps towards answering this question, in these thesis we show the results of using primarily bioinformatic strategies to find evolutionary patterns in TAL effector sequences. We designed the suite “QueTAL” containing software for 1) the construction of phylogenetic trees based on repeat sequences, 2) comparison of predicted binding sites for TAL effectors, 3) identification of repeat motifs in TAL effector pairs. This suite was made publicly available and it is being actively used by the Xanthomonas research community.We used these programs along with other strategies to analyze variation in over 900 TAL effector sequences from 22 taxonomic groups finding 1) a loss of diversity of repeats through the Xanthomonas genus, which may impact the evolution of TAL effector architecture, 2) groups of TAL effector orthologs specific to certain taxonomic groups of pathovars that may share common functions, 3) evidence of repeat motifs shared and lost between TAL effectors hinting at extensive recombination (particularly gene conversion) events. We propose that the swapping of repeat blocks between TAL effectors is a motor for TAL effector specialization that allows for fast functional diversification through the acquisition of new targets in the host plants.We then analyzed in detail the diversity of TAL effector sequences in African strains of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), causing agent of bacterial leaf blight of rice, the most destructive bacterial disease in rice. We found indications of virulence activity of a TAL effector being the product of a gene conversion event, supporting our hypothesis of gene conversion as a motor of TAL effector evolution. We also used transcriptomic data and systematic gain-of-function assays to uncover a TAL effector that exerts a virulence role through the induction of two susceptibility genes, one of which represents a novel class of susceptibility gene in bacterial blight. Finally, we present partial results of transcriptomic analyses aimed at de-constructing the effects of each TAL effector from one strain on the rice transcriptome, as well as results from collaborative functional and evolutionary analyses in other groups of Xanthomonas.Altogether, this thesis offers a new conceptual framework and new tools for the analysis of TAL effector function and evolution, and we hope this will help in the design of strategies aimed at improving resistance to bacteria in agronomically important plants.

Orientador: Celso Eduardo Benedetti / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T05:36:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Soprano_AdrianaSantos_D.pdf: 24018757 bytes, checksum: 29724fbb81a588e3bb656bf4c2df3390 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: O cancro cítrico, causado pela bactéria Xanthomonas citri (X. citri), afeta a maioria das espécies de Citrus, ocorre praticamente em todos continentes e se destaca como uma séria ameaça à citricultura brasileira. O mecanismo molecular pelo qual X. citri causa cancro não é inteiramente conhecido, entretanto, sabe-se que a bactéria utiliza o sistema secretório tipo III para injetar proteínas de patogenicidade, entre elas, PthAs da família AvrBs3/PthA, também conhecidas como efetores TAL (transcriptional activator-like). Os efetores TAL atuam como fatores de transcrição transativando genes específicos da planta que vão beneficiar a bactéria ou desencadear respostas de defesa. Com o objetivo de entender os mecanismos moleculares pelos quais os efetores TAL atuam, a técnica de duplo híbrido foi usada para identificar proteínas de laranja doce (Citrus sinensis) que interagem com PthA4, um dos efetores TAL de X. citri necessário para o desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico. A maioria das proteínas de laranja identificadas como alvos de PthA4 apresenta domínios de ligação à DNA ou RNA e está envolvida no controle da transcrição, estabilização de mRNAs e tradução. Várias dessas proteínas interagem entre si, sugerindo a presença de um complexo multiproteico como alvo de efetores TAL. Entre as proteínas envolvidas no controle da transcrição, destacamos a CsMAF1, uma proteína homóloga à MAF1 humana que atua como regulador negativo da RNA Polimerase III. Os resultados obtidos nesse trabalho revelam que CsMAF1 complementa o fenótipo do mutante maf1 de levedura, reprimindo a expressão de tRNAHis e que a expressão de PthA4 na cepa complementada restaura a síntese desse tRNA. Portanto, os dados mostram que CsMAF1 atua como um repressor da RNA Pol III em levedura e que PthA4 altera o estado repressor de CsMAF1 sobre a RNA Pol III. De forma surpreendente, verificamos que plantas de citros com níveis reduzidos de CsMAF1 apresentaram aumento significativo no número e intensidade de lesões hiperplásticas ou eruptivas quando infiltradas com X. citri, indicando que CsMAF1 desempenha um papel crítico no desenvolvimento dos sintomas do cancro cítrico. O aumento das lesões do cancro nas plantas silenciadas para CsMAF1 se correlaciona com um aumento expressivo de tRNAs, incluindo o tRNAHis, confirmando assim o papel repressor de CsMAF1 sobre a RNA Pol III em citros. Além disso, mostramos nesse trabalho que CsMAF1 é uma fosfoproteína que se encontra na forma dimérica em solução, uma característica singular ainda não descrita para membros dessa família de proteínas. Verificamos que CsMAF1 é fosforilada in vitro pelas quinases PKA e PKC e que apresenta sítios adicionais de fosforilação conservados para a quinase TOR, incluindo o resíduo Thr62. Curiosamente, tais sítios se localizam na interface de dimerização de CsMAF1, sugerindo que a fosforilação desses sítios deve regular a função da proteína e/ou seu estado multimérico. De fato, verificamos que a substituição do resíduo de treonina Thr 62 para ácido aspártico (Asp 62) diminui a proporção dímero:monômero de CsMAF1, indicando que a fosforilação de resíduos na interface do dímero desestabiliza o dímero, e que esse pode ser um mecanismo regulatório novo para essa classe de proteína. Desse modo, esses achados abrem novas perspectivas para o entendimento não só dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na regulação da RNA Pol III pela CsMAF1, como também do papel de PthA4 na interação com CsMAF1 e sua modulação da transcrição / Abstract: Citrus canker, caused by Xanthomonas citri (X. citri), is a disease that affects most of the Citrus species, occurs in almost all continents and stands as a threat to the Brazilian citrus industry. The molecular mechanism by which X. citri causes canker is poorly understood, however the bacterium injects pathogenicity proteins via the type III secretion system (T3S) including proteins of AvrBs3/PthA family, also known as transcriptional activator-like (TAL) effectors. TAL effectors have been extensively studied and are known to act as transcription factors that transactivate specific plant genes which either benefit the bacteria or trigger defense responses. To gain insights into the molecular mode of action of TAL effectors, a twohybrid screening was performed to identify sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) proteins that interact with PthA4, one of the X. citri TAL effectors required for citrus canker development. Among the proteins identified as PthA4 interactors, most are DNA and/or RNA-binding factors involved in chromatin remodeling and repair, transcriptional control and mRNA stabilization/modification. Several of these proteins interact with each other, suggesting the presence of a multiprotein complex as a target of TAL effectors. Among the proteins involved in transcription control, we selected for further studies the CsMAF1, a homolog of the human MAF1 that acts as a negative regulator of RNA polymerase III. The results presented here reveal that CsMAF1 complements the yeast maf1 mutant phenotype by repressing the tRNAHis transcription, and that PthA4 expression in the complemented strain restores the tRNAHis synthesis. Thus, the data show that CsMAF1 acts as a RNA Pol III repressor in yeast and that PthA4 somehow suppresses the repressor activity of CsMAF1 upon on the RNA Pol III. Surprisingly, we found that citrus plants with reduced levels of CsMAF1 showed a significant increase in the number, morphology and size of eruptive or hyperplastic lesions when infiltrated with X. citri, indicating the CsMAF1 plays a critical role in canker development. Increased canker lesions in CsMAF1 silenced plants correlated with a significant increase of tRNAs expression, including tRNAHis, thus confirming the repressor role of CsMAF1 upon the citrus RNA Pol III. Furthermore, we showed in this work that CsMAF1 is a phosphorylated and a dimer in solution, a feature that so far has not been reported for any member of this protein family. We found that CsMAF1 is phosphorylated in vitro by PKA and PKC, and has additional phosphorylation sites for the TOR kinase, including the Thr 62 residue. Interestingly, these phosphorylation sites are located at the dimerization interface of CsMAF1, suggesting that phosphorylation of such sites might regulate the function of the protein and / or its multimeric state. Indeed, mutation of threonine residue Thr62 to aspartic acid (Asp62) decreases the dimer:monomer CsMAF1 ratio, indicating that phosphorylation of the residues at the interface of the dimer destabilizes the dimer, and this may be a novel regulatory mechanism for this class of protein. Thus, these findings open new perspectives for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in RNA Pol III regulation by CsMAF1, as well as for the role of PthA4 in the modulation of RNA Pol III transcription mediated by CsMAF1 / Doutorado / Genetica Vegetal e Melhoramento / Doutor em Genetica e Biologia Molecular