The basis of this work is a description of the different tariff systems in both national and international rail transport. The section devoted to national tariffs compares the differences in fares between the periods 2006/2007, 2007/2008 and 2009/2010. The emphasis on ordinary fare is devoted to the transition from more than one kilometre zones to one kilometre zones. The conditions necessary to make the CD business offers convenient to purchase are also analyzed. International fares are compared by the price per tariff kilometre. Most discounts are available only if the return journey. The main product is the eTiket. Travelers from Czech Republic to the border regions of Germany and Poland can use several types of international ticket networks.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma proposta de construção de uma nova metodologia voltada à estrutura tarifária de sistemas elétricos, considerando grupos de consumidores de média e de baixa tensão. A discussão mostra a necessidade de aprimoramento da atual estrutura tarifária brasileira para os consumidores atendidos pelos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Também os principais aspectos necessários para uma estrutura mais eficiente, justa e consistente, baseada nos fundamentos da teoria econômica, são aqui considerados. Nesse contexto, realizou-se uma pesquisa sobre as tarifações praticadas em diversos países, identificando suas principais características e potenciais aplicabilidades neste estudo. Em relação às simulações computacionais, foi desenvolvido um algoritmo para determinação dos preços das tarifas dos consumidores atendidos por uma dada distribuidora, considerando as características socioeconômicas e operacionais de sua área de concessão. Por fim, apresentam-se os resultados obtidos a partir da simulação de novas tarifas, baseados em um estudo de caso de uma concessionária da região Sudeste do Brasil. Assim, foram comprovadas a aplicabilidade e eficiência da metodologia desenvolvida neste trabalho, no que diz respeito à segmentação do mercado da distribuidora nas opções tarifárias propostas e a potenciais aplicações em projetos piloto. / This dissertation presents a proposal for the construction of a new methodology for electricity distribution pricing, considering medium and low voltage consumer groups. The discussion shows the need for improvements in the current tariff structure for Brazilian consumers supplied by distribution systems. Also, main necessary aspects for a more efficient, fair and consistent rate design, based on the fundamentals of economic theory, are herein considered. In this context, a research on the pricing methods applied in different countries was carried out, identifying their key characteristics and potential applicability for this study. Regarding computer simulations, an algorithm was developed to determine the tariffs of consumers supplied by a certain distribution company, considering the social, economic and operational characteristics of its concession area. Finally, the results obtained from the simulation of new tariffs are presented, based on a case study for a company located in the southeast of Brazil. Thus, it was proved the applicability and efficiency of the methodology developed in this work, regarding the utility market segmentation on the proposed tariff options and potential applications in pilot projects.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma proposta de construção de uma nova metodologia voltada à estrutura tarifária de sistemas elétricos, considerando grupos de consumidores de média e de baixa tensão. A discussão mostra a necessidade de aprimoramento da atual estrutura tarifária brasileira para os consumidores atendidos pelos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Também os principais aspectos necessários para uma estrutura mais eficiente, justa e consistente, baseada nos fundamentos da teoria econômica, são aqui considerados. Nesse contexto, realizou-se uma pesquisa sobre as tarifações praticadas em diversos países, identificando suas principais características e potenciais aplicabilidades neste estudo. Em relação às simulações computacionais, foi desenvolvido um algoritmo para determinação dos preços das tarifas dos consumidores atendidos por uma dada distribuidora, considerando as características socioeconômicas e operacionais de sua área de concessão. Por fim, apresentam-se os resultados obtidos a partir da simulação de novas tarifas, baseados em um estudo de caso de uma concessionária da região Sudeste do Brasil. Assim, foram comprovadas a aplicabilidade e eficiência da metodologia desenvolvida neste trabalho, no que diz respeito à segmentação do mercado da distribuidora nas opções tarifárias propostas e a potenciais aplicações em projetos piloto. / This dissertation presents a proposal for the construction of a new methodology for electricity distribution pricing, considering medium and low voltage consumer groups. The discussion shows the need for improvements in the current tariff structure for Brazilian consumers supplied by distribution systems. Also, main necessary aspects for a more efficient, fair and consistent rate design, based on the fundamentals of economic theory, are herein considered. In this context, a research on the pricing methods applied in different countries was carried out, identifying their key characteristics and potential applicability for this study. Regarding computer simulations, an algorithm was developed to determine the tariffs of consumers supplied by a certain distribution company, considering the social, economic and operational characteristics of its concession area. Finally, the results obtained from the simulation of new tariffs are presented, based on a case study for a company located in the southeast of Brazil. Thus, it was proved the applicability and efficiency of the methodology developed in this work, regarding the utility market segmentation on the proposed tariff options and potential applications in pilot projects.

President Trump’s presidency can be characterized as unpredictable, controversial, and unconventional. One such instance is America’s departure from decades of free-trade advocacy under his administration and engagement in trade disputes with numerous nations. By viewing the 2018 trade dispute through the political and economic perspectives, this thesis aims to understand what the motivating factors are for Trump and his administration to pursue such extensive protectionist policies. The author analyzes the tariffs through two main categories: those that target an adversarial power, China, and those that target traditional allies like Canada, Mexico, and the European Union. The thesis finds that, politically and economically, the protectionist policies have a low likelihood of yielding a substantial payout for the Trump administration. They also potentially threaten to undermine the U.S-built world order.

The increasing environmental threat because of unsustainable pollution levelshave forced E.U. to take further actions by enforcing directives in the electricity sector. The E.U. directives, enforced in 2002, aim to increase the level of electricity produced from renewable sources. In order to fulfill their received national target of green electricity, the E.U. members have, in most cases, either adopted a feed-in tariff or tradable green certificates. Since it is in a government’sinterest to minimize expenditure while still maximizing incentives when adopting a policy, this study has evaluated the cost-efficiency differences of a FIT and aTGC from a governmental perspective. This has been done by using two different models, one which measures total governmental expenditures in the energy sector and one which only measures the subsidies in the energy sector. The findings suggest that a TGC can be up to 159% more cost-efficient than a FIT, depending on how it is measured. The total expenditure model could establish the costefficiency differences with a significance of 5%, while the subsidy model could not establish the differences on a satisfying significance level

This paper attempts to study the Swedish tariffs during the interwar period in order to asses the level of protectionism in Swedish tariff policy during the period. It is foremost the nominal tariffs that are studied, however an estimate of the effective rate of protection of the tariffs is also calculated for a number of goods. In order to asses the level of protectionism, the Swedish tariffs are also compared with Finnish tariff levels during the interwar period. The sample of Swedish tariffs that have been studied in this paper include the fifteen most important kinds of import goods and the fifteen most important kinds of export goods. The nominal tariff of each kind of goods have been weighted by their share of the total import value. The Swedish specific tariffs did not change much during the interwar period except for a few goods such as petroleum, coffee and automobiles. The fluctuation in nominal tariffs were in most cases the result of the steep fall in prices during the period. Compared to the Finnish tariffs, the Swedish tariffs seem to have been generally lower, especially in agricultural goods in which the Swedish tariffs are surprisingly immobile during the period. This paper finds that the Swedish tariff policy during the interwar period were inactive and relatively free-market oriented.

Modern trade theory suggests that protectionist policies hinder exports by altering domestic prices and production incentives. This paper examines the effect of import tariffs on Mexican non-oil exports through a comprehensive analysis of the Mexican trade sector, including a breakdown of the most important free trade agreements for the Mexican economy, information on Mexican resource mobility and factor endowment, and analysis on Mexico’s tariff structure. The paper finds that import tariffs on both intermediate and final goods have a direct and significant effect on exports, alluding to the existence of an anti-export bias, and argues that free trade is the most effective way to promote exports and allow for domestic price readjustment.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 407-421).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Stanford University, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 222-234).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Union Institute, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 171-178).