This paper attempts to study the Swedish tariffs during the interwar period in order to asses the level of protectionism in Swedish tariff policy during the period. It is foremost the nominal tariffs that are studied, however an estimate of the effective rate of protection of the tariffs is also calculated for a number of goods. In order to asses the level of protectionism, the Swedish tariffs are also compared with Finnish tariff levels during the interwar period. The sample of Swedish tariffs that have been studied in this paper include the fifteen most important kinds of import goods and the fifteen most important kinds of export goods. The nominal tariff of each kind of goods have been weighted by their share of the total import value. The Swedish specific tariffs did not change much during the interwar period except for a few goods such as petroleum, coffee and automobiles. The fluctuation in nominal tariffs were in most cases the result of the steep fall in prices during the period. Compared to the Finnish tariffs, the Swedish tariffs seem to have been generally lower, especially in agricultural goods in which the Swedish tariffs are surprisingly immobile during the period. This paper finds that the Swedish tariff policy during the interwar period were inactive and relatively free-market oriented.

O Brasil possui um grande potencial agrícola e deve ampliar suas exportações para reduzir o déficit em transações correntes. No entanto, as exportações agrícolas brasileiras estão sujeitas a restrições tarifárias e não-tarifárias nos Estados Unidos e na União Européia, mercados importantes para o Brasil. Este trabalho visou a avaliar a incidência de picos tarifários, quotas tarifárias, barreiras técnicas e barreiras sanitárias e fitossanitárias sobre o valor das exportações agrícolas brasileiras nos Estados Unidos e na União Européia, definir as medidas de proteção mais usadas por cada um desses parceiros comerciais e verificar os principais produtos e complexos agrícolas sujeitos a essas medidas no ano 2000, através da utilização dos índices de cobertura e freqüência. / Brazil has a large agricultural potential and must increase its exports to reduce the deficit in current transactions. However, Brazilian agricultural exports are subject to tariff and non-tariff trade restrictions in the United States and European Union, which are important markets for Brazil. The purpose of this theses was to evaluate the importance of tariff peaks, tariff rate quotas, technical barriers, sanitary and phytosanitary measures over Brazilian agricultural export value in the United States and European Union, to define the protection measures applied by each of these trade partners and verify which are the main agricultural products subjects to these measures in the year 2000, by the use of frequency and coverage indexes.

O Brasil possui um grande potencial agrícola e deve ampliar suas exportações para reduzir o déficit em transações correntes. No entanto, as exportações agrícolas brasileiras estão sujeitas a restrições tarifárias e não-tarifárias nos Estados Unidos e na União Européia, mercados importantes para o Brasil. Este trabalho visou a avaliar a incidência de picos tarifários, quotas tarifárias, barreiras técnicas e barreiras sanitárias e fitossanitárias sobre o valor das exportações agrícolas brasileiras nos Estados Unidos e na União Européia, definir as medidas de proteção mais usadas por cada um desses parceiros comerciais e verificar os principais produtos e complexos agrícolas sujeitos a essas medidas no ano 2000, através da utilização dos índices de cobertura e freqüência. / Brazil has a large agricultural potential and must increase its exports to reduce the deficit in current transactions. However, Brazilian agricultural exports are subject to tariff and non-tariff trade restrictions in the United States and European Union, which are important markets for Brazil. The purpose of this theses was to evaluate the importance of tariff peaks, tariff rate quotas, technical barriers, sanitary and phytosanitary measures over Brazilian agricultural export value in the United States and European Union, to define the protection measures applied by each of these trade partners and verify which are the main agricultural products subjects to these measures in the year 2000, by the use of frequency and coverage indexes.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo estimar as tarifas equivalentes de medidas nãotarifárias, em especial de medidas sanitárias e técnicas, impostas pela União Européia às exportações brasileiras de carne bovina. O período de análise compreende os anos de 2000 a 2009, e consideram-se carnes com e sem osso, frescas e congeladas, classificadas a seis dígitos do Sistema Harmonizado. A revisão de literatura identifica um número considerável de exigências técnicas e sanitárias, incidentes sobre o comércio da carne bovina brasileira, justificando a necessidade de mensurar o impacto dessas medidas. Estimam-se dois modelos, assumindo homogeneidade e heterogeneidade dos bens, seguindo a metodologia proposta, respectivamente, por Deardorff e Stern (1997) e Yue, Beghin e Jensen (2005). Em geral, a partir dessa estimação são observadas tarifas equivalentes elevadas, i.e., observa-se que os preços domésticos europeus e os preços mundiais, no mercado de carne bovina, diferem entre si, o que pode indicar que o mercado da UE está sendo, de fato, protegido por medidas nãotarifárias além das tarifárias. Ao se considerar diferentes níveis de preferência dos consumidores europeus pela carne doméstica, verificam-se estimativas negativas para as tarifas equivalentes. A estimação de tarifas equivalentes é útil, pois estas podem ser incluídas como variáveis explicativas em outros modelos econométricos visando analisar seus impactos sobre o comércio. Contudo, essa estimação enfrenta a dificuldade de obtenção de dados suficientemente detalhados para preços internacionais e domésticos dos países compradores de carne, bem como de informações mais acuradas sobre fretes e grau de preferência dos consumidores. / This research aims at estimating the tariff equivalent of NTMs, especially of technical and sanitary measures, enforced by the European Union to the Brazilian beef exports. The analysis is implemented for the years 2000 to 2009, and we consider the trade of frozen and fresh beef, with bone and boneless, classified to the six-digit of the Harmonized System. The literature review points to a considerable number of technical and sanitary requirements that affect Brazilian beef trade, and therefore provides arguments to evaluate their impacts. Two models are estimated, assuming both homogeneity and heterogeneity of goods, and following, respectively, the methodology proposed by Deardorff and Stern (1997) and Yue, Beghin and Jensen (2005). In general, we observe high estimates for tariff equivalents, i.e., the European domestic prices and the world prices actually differ, which could indicate that the European market has been effectively protected by NTMs, besides tariffs. By modeling beef as an heterogeneous good and incorporating different levels of consumers preference in favor to domestic beef, negative estimates of tariff equivalents are found. The estimation of tariff equivalents is useful because they can be used as explanatory variable in other econometric models in order to evaluate their impacts on trade. However, this estimation faces difficulties in obtaining international prices detailed for beef categories, as well as domestic importing prices, and accurate data on freights and consumers preferences.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo estimar as tarifas equivalentes de medidas nãotarifárias, em especial de medidas sanitárias e técnicas, impostas pela União Européia às exportações brasileiras de carne bovina. O período de análise compreende os anos de 2000 a 2009, e consideram-se carnes com e sem osso, frescas e congeladas, classificadas a seis dígitos do Sistema Harmonizado. A revisão de literatura identifica um número considerável de exigências técnicas e sanitárias, incidentes sobre o comércio da carne bovina brasileira, justificando a necessidade de mensurar o impacto dessas medidas. Estimam-se dois modelos, assumindo homogeneidade e heterogeneidade dos bens, seguindo a metodologia proposta, respectivamente, por Deardorff e Stern (1997) e Yue, Beghin e Jensen (2005). Em geral, a partir dessa estimação são observadas tarifas equivalentes elevadas, i.e., observa-se que os preços domésticos europeus e os preços mundiais, no mercado de carne bovina, diferem entre si, o que pode indicar que o mercado da UE está sendo, de fato, protegido por medidas nãotarifárias além das tarifárias. Ao se considerar diferentes níveis de preferência dos consumidores europeus pela carne doméstica, verificam-se estimativas negativas para as tarifas equivalentes. A estimação de tarifas equivalentes é útil, pois estas podem ser incluídas como variáveis explicativas em outros modelos econométricos visando analisar seus impactos sobre o comércio. Contudo, essa estimação enfrenta a dificuldade de obtenção de dados suficientemente detalhados para preços internacionais e domésticos dos países compradores de carne, bem como de informações mais acuradas sobre fretes e grau de preferência dos consumidores. / This research aims at estimating the tariff equivalent of NTMs, especially of technical and sanitary measures, enforced by the European Union to the Brazilian beef exports. The analysis is implemented for the years 2000 to 2009, and we consider the trade of frozen and fresh beef, with bone and boneless, classified to the six-digit of the Harmonized System. The literature review points to a considerable number of technical and sanitary requirements that affect Brazilian beef trade, and therefore provides arguments to evaluate their impacts. Two models are estimated, assuming both homogeneity and heterogeneity of goods, and following, respectively, the methodology proposed by Deardorff and Stern (1997) and Yue, Beghin and Jensen (2005). In general, we observe high estimates for tariff equivalents, i.e., the European domestic prices and the world prices actually differ, which could indicate that the European market has been effectively protected by NTMs, besides tariffs. By modeling beef as an heterogeneous good and incorporating different levels of consumers preference in favor to domestic beef, negative estimates of tariff equivalents are found. The estimation of tariff equivalents is useful because they can be used as explanatory variable in other econometric models in order to evaluate their impacts on trade. However, this estimation faces difficulties in obtaining international prices detailed for beef categories, as well as domestic importing prices, and accurate data on freights and consumers preferences.

A tese trata da política econômica internacional desenvolvida pelo govêrno brasileiro, composta pela política de comércio exterior, a política cambial e tarifária, e o balanço de pagamentos, que constituem pilares fundamentais da política de estabilização do PAEG. A política econômica externa, além de contribuir para a estabilidade e o equilíbrio das contas externas, tentou criar as condições para realização de um novo modelo de crescimento, baseado na promoção de exportações e na abertura da economia aos fluxos de comércio e de investimento. A cooperação financeira internacional e a resolução do endividamento externo passaram a ser considerados questões estratégicas para o êxito deste novo modelo. Sem o aval e os recursos do FMI e dos organismos multilaterais dificilmente o plano de estabilização teria sobrevivido. / This dissertation is about the international economic policy developed by the Brazilian Government. It includes the external trade policy, the exchange rate policy and tariffs trade as well as the balance of payments, that were the basic points of the economic stabilization policy that was carried on during the PAEG – Plano de Ação Econômica do Governo. The external economic policy has helped to reach the goal of the Brazilian economy stabilization as well as has created the conditions for the launching of a new economic growth model, based upon the exports and the opening of the country to the international investment flows. The questions concerning the international finance cooperation and the solution of the external debt problem were considered to be strategic issues for achieving the success of this new economic model. The stabilization program would not be succeeded without the help from the IMF and other multilateral agencies.

A tese trata da política econômica internacional desenvolvida pelo govêrno brasileiro, composta pela política de comércio exterior, a política cambial e tarifária, e o balanço de pagamentos, que constituem pilares fundamentais da política de estabilização do PAEG. A política econômica externa, além de contribuir para a estabilidade e o equilíbrio das contas externas, tentou criar as condições para realização de um novo modelo de crescimento, baseado na promoção de exportações e na abertura da economia aos fluxos de comércio e de investimento. A cooperação financeira internacional e a resolução do endividamento externo passaram a ser considerados questões estratégicas para o êxito deste novo modelo. Sem o aval e os recursos do FMI e dos organismos multilaterais dificilmente o plano de estabilização teria sobrevivido. / This dissertation is about the international economic policy developed by the Brazilian Government. It includes the external trade policy, the exchange rate policy and tariffs trade as well as the balance of payments, that were the basic points of the economic stabilization policy that was carried on during the PAEG – Plano de Ação Econômica do Governo. The external economic policy has helped to reach the goal of the Brazilian economy stabilization as well as has created the conditions for the launching of a new economic growth model, based upon the exports and the opening of the country to the international investment flows. The questions concerning the international finance cooperation and the solution of the external debt problem were considered to be strategic issues for achieving the success of this new economic model. The stabilization program would not be succeeded without the help from the IMF and other multilateral agencies.

Современная экономическая ситуация не позволяет государственным органам исполнительной власти выполнить в полном объеме взятые на себя обязательства по обеспечению населения бесплатной медицинской помощью. Объективной необходимостью отечественного здравоохранения стала задача пересмотра существующей модели оплаты медицинской помощи с формированием такой нормативной базы, которая вводила бы для всех регионов России единые принципы тарифной политики и единые методы оплаты, единую методику расчета тарифов и единые методологические подходы к оплате медицинской помощи без увеличения расходных обязательств в системе обязательного медицинского страхования. Цель исследования - систематизация опыта Свердловской области по внедрению современной модели оплаты медицинской помощи в рамках перехода на новые способы оплаты по клинико-статистическим группам, разработка практических рекомендаций по внедрению современной модели финансирования и оплаты медицинской помощи через систему обязательного медицинского страхования. В работе: - обобщен и проанализирован российский опыт применения и внедрения современной модели оплаты медицинской помощи на основе клинико-статистических групп; - предложена и внедрена современная модель оплаты медицинской помощи в Свердловской области, включающая новые квалификационные критерии отнесения случая заболевания к конкретной клинико-статистической группе заболеваний, что позволило пересмотреть структуру групп заболеваний и относительные коэффициенты затратоемкости, и существенно снизить дифференциацию тарифов на оплату медицинской помощи; - разработана методика дифференциации на подгруппы стандартного перечня групп КСГ по основным профилям медицинской помощи с дифференцированной оплатой медицинской помощи через систему обязательного медицинского страхования в Свердловской области. / He current economic situation does not allow state bodies of Executive power to comply fully with its obligations to provide the population with free medical care. The objective necessity of national health care was the task of revising the existing model of payment for medical care with the formation of such a regulatory framework would be introduced for all regions of Russia unified principles of the tariff policy and the common payment methods a common methodology for calculating tariffs and common methodological approaches to paying for health care without increasing spending obligations in the system of mandatory medical insurance. The aim of the research is systematization of experience of the Sverdlovsk region by introducing modern methods of payment of medical aid within the framework of the transition to new payment methods on clinical and statistical groups, development of practical recommendations on introduction of modern models of financing and payment for medical assistance through mandatory medical insurance. In work: - compiled and analyzed the Russian experience of application and implementation of modern models of payment for medical care based on clinical and statistical groups; - proposed and introduced a modern model of payment for medical care in the Sverdlovsk region, which includes new qualification criteria for the assignment of cases to specific diagnostic-related group of diseases, that allowed to revise the structure of groups of diseases and the relative coefficients of tetrataenite, and significantly reduce the differentiation of tariffs for payment of medical assistance; - developed method of differentiation for subgroups of the standard list of groups of DRG on the main profile of medical aid with differentiated pay for health care through the compulsory health insurance system in the Sverdlovsk region..