In the manufacturing sector, despite the vital role it plays, the consumption of energy is rarely considered as a manufacturing process variable during the scheduling of production jobs. Due to both physical and contractual limits, the local power infrastructure can only deliver a finite amount of electrical energy at any one time. As a consequence of not considering the energy usage during the scheduling process, this limited capacity can be inefficiently utilised or exceeded, potentially resulting in damage to the infrastructure. To address this, this thesis presents a novel schedule optimisation system. Here, a Genetic Algorithm is used to optimise the start times of manufacturing jobs such that the variance in production line energy consumption is minimised, while ensuring that typical hard and soft schedule constraints are maintained. Prediction accuracy is assured through the use of a novel library-based system which is able to provide historical energy data at a high temporal granularity, while accounting for the influence of machine conditions on the energy consumption. In cases where there is insufficient historical data for a particular manufacturing job, the library-based system is able to analyse the available energy data and utilise machine learning to generate temporary synthetic profiles compensated for probable machine conditions. The performance of the entire proposed system is optimised through significant experimentation and analysis, which allows for an optimised schedule to be produced within an acceptable amount of time. Testing in a lab-based production line demonstrates that the optimised schedule is able to significantly reduce the energy consumption variance produced by a production schedule, while providing a highly accurate prediction as to the energy consumption during the schedules execution. The proposed system is also demonstrated to be easily expandable, allowing it to consider local renewable energy generation and energy storage, along with objectives such as the minimisation of peak energy consumption, and energy drawn from the National Grid.

The role of ponds within the terrestrial carbon cycle has been receiving increasing interest. Existing evidence suggests that they have substantial global coverage, with ecosystem function rates disproportionately intense for their size making them significant cyclers of atmospheric carbon. This project aims to: (1) provide a comprehensive survey and quantification of carbon stocks within lowland ponds from a diverse range of ecological pond types; (2) provide a comparison of carbon stocks from pond sediments across significantly different biogeographical regions across England; and (3) monitor the temporal and spatial variability of carbon fluxes from ponds. Carbon stocks were surveyed in 40 ponds across Druridge Bay, Northumberland. These ponds were selected for their distinct plant communities and hydrological patterns that form four broad pond types: dune-slack ponds; arable field ponds; pasture field; and classically vegetated ponds. High measures of percentage carbon were found within the sediments, however, when quantified in terms of carbon (C) stock, (kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm), little difference was observed among classically vegetated, arable, and pasture pond types (means = 3.14, 3.17, 4.94 kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm respectively); only sediment C stocks of dune-slack ponds (6.18 kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm) were significantly different from other pond types. Equally, the heterogeneity of C stocks among dune-slack ponds varied markedly, with ponds in arable fields being fairly consistent. No significant difference was observed between C stocks in the pond sediments compared to those in surrounding soil. This does not mean that they play a similar role in the carbon cycle, but highlights the importance of acquiring sediment burial rates within these systems in order to quantify their role as C stores. To test if the patterns of C storage could be generalised beyond the Northumberland ponds to other regions in the England, 15 ponds were surveyed, 5 each from 3 separate regions of England with differing climatic influences and biogeographical characteristics: temporary ponds on the Lizard Peninsula, Cornwall, with Mediterranean climate; pingo ponds of Thomspon Common, Norfolk; and peat excavation ponds at Askham Bog, Yorkshire. Sediment C stocks of ponds sampled in Cornwall (mean = 2.6 kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm), were > 43 % lower compared to those in Yorkshire (6.0 kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm) and Norfolk (7.7 kg-1 C m-2 < upper 10 cm). However, cumulatively, the variation observed among all sites was comparable to the high level of variation observed in the comprehensive survey of ponds at Druridge. The absence of detailed C flux rates from small water bodies, especially from desiccated sediments during summer dry phases, is a key factor constraining their inclusion in terrestrial carbon budgets. Thus, CO2 fluxes were monitored from 26 neighbouring experimental ponds of known age, history and ecology, focusing on short-term hydrological changes over two, two-week periods, comprising a drying phase and re-wetting phase. During the drying phase flux rates exhibited a 9-fold increase resulting in a shift from a net intake of CO2 to a net site emission whilst the reverse was observed during the rewetting phase. Moreover, significant variability in fluxes of CO2 were observed among ponds on individual sampling days; the highest range observed was -2154 to 10658 mg m-2 d-1. The result is marked spatial variability in CO2 processing. The large degree of temporal and spatial heterogeneity repeatedly observed throughout this study, both in sediment carbon stocks and CO2 fluxes, highlights the complexity of carbon processing within small aquatic systems such as ponds. This study specifically highlights the need for accurate measures of burial rates within pond systems in order to fully assess their carbon capture capability.

Biodegradation is a commonly used approach for the removal of organic contaminants from soil, relying on naturally present microorganisms that utilise the pollutants as an energy source. Often these sites are co-contaminated with heavy metals and the aim of the current research was to investigate how this affects the biodegradation of 16 US EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), both in terms of removal rates and the overall functioning of the soil microbial community. Soil samples were obtained from a Greenfield site in Newcastle upon Tyne. The soil had a high organic content (11.0 %) and also contained elevated lead concentrations as a result of past atmospheric deposition from adjacent industrial activities. PAHs were applied to the soil using a coal tar source dissolved in acetone, giving a total PAH concentration in the spiked soil of 2166 mg kg-1. Individual PAH concentrations ranged from 1.44 mg kg-1 (acenaphthylene) to 325 mg kg-1 (benzo[b]fluoranthene); the benzo[a]pyrene concentration was 255 mg kg-1. The effect of heavy metal co-contaminants on the biodegradation was investigated using separate amendments of cadmium and lead to give respective total concentrations ranging from 133 to 620 mg kg-1 and 340 to 817 mg kg-1. Mercury amendment was used to give an abiotic control. The study was carried out over 40 weeks. For all treatments, the degradation of PAHs was observed to be biphasic. A novel kinetic model was developed to explain this dependence. In the absence of metal amendment, it was found that PAHs comprising two and three benzene rings generally degrade at a faster rate than four- five and six-membered rings. In the presence of metal amendments, overall % biodegradation after 40 weeks is relatively unaffected for two to four-ring PAHs but shows significant impairment for five and six-ring PAHs. Nevertheless, degradation rates generally decrease with increasing metal concentration, as do soil respiration rate, Shannon Diversity Index, and microbial biomass content. Lead appears to exert the greatest inhibitory effect. The novelty of this study arises from the integrated approach to investigating the effect of metal co-contaminants on the biodegradation of all 16 US EPA priority PAHs together with parameters relating to the functioning and diversity of the soil microbial community.

To address my first objective, I opportunistically collected road-killed bobcats (n=44) throughout Illinois during 2013-2014, and analyzed their liver tissue for the presence of PCBs, PBDEs, and various other alternative halogenated flame retardants. Concentrations of ∑PCBs ranged from 76.4 ng/g lw to 3782 ng/g lw (median 562.97 ng/g lw). Male bobcats had significantly higher concentrations of PCBs than females (p = 0.04). Concentrations of ∑PBDEs (including all detectable PBDE congeners) ranged from 8.3 to 1920 ng/g lipid weight (median: 50.3 ng/g lw). Among the alternative flame retardants screened, Dechloranes (including anti- and syn-Dechlorane Plus and Dechlorane-602, 603, and 604), tetrabromo-o-chlorotoluene (TBCT), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) were also detected frequently, with median concentrations of 28.7, 5.2, and 11.8 ng/g lw, respectively. Dechlorane analogue compositions in bobcats were different from that reported in other studies, suggesting species- or analogue-dependent bioaccumulation, biomagnification, or metabolism of Dechlorane chemicals in different food webs. My findings, along with previously reported food web models, suggest Dechloranes may possess substantial bioaccumulation and biomagnification potencies in terrestrial mammalian food webs. Thus, attention should be given to these highly bioavailable flame retardants in future environmental biomonitoring and risk assessments in a post-PBDE era. To address my second objective I collected raccoons (n=32) from various sites across Illinois and Missouri during 2013-2015. Liver tissues were analyzed for the presence of PBDEs and Dechloranes. ∑PBDE concentrations ranged from 19.1 ng/g lw to 2124 ng/g lw (median = 98.0 ng/g lw) and did not differ between gender or age of raccoon. Although nonsignificant (p=0.06), adult raccoons appeared to have greater PBDE concentration loads compared to juveniles. These nonsignificant differences are likely due to large variation in contaminant concentrations, possibly reflecting differences in individual raccoon diet and behavior. This is the first study reporting bioaccumulation of halogenated flame retardants in a wild felid in North America, and also the first report of PBDE accumulation in North American raccoons. The wide detection of Dechloranes, HBCD and TBCT in bobcats suggests a broad exposure of these alternative flame retardants in terrestrial apex predators in terrestrial ecosystems. The comparatively high levels of PBDEs in raccoons also suggest that biota in terrestrial habitats are still widely exposed to and susceptible to the bioaccumulation of these flame retardants.

The thesis builds on previous work comparing biodiversity of small terrestrial mammals at four localities with different management. The thesis significantly extends the previous work. The theoretical part consists of a literature search on the issue of the occurrence of small mammals in an area around the town Třeboň, their microhabitat preferences and the impact of farming on biodiversity of their communities. The practical part describes the species composition of small terrestrial mammals? communities and changes of their abundance and biomass during the three growing seasons, depending on the climatic characteristics of the locality. It includes evaluation of the results of the regular catches in traps (CMR method), which were realized from June to September between 2009 and 2011 (three catches once a year) at four sites with different management: Mokré louky - non mowed, Mokré louky - mowed, Cirkvičný meadow and a pasture (meadow) Jeţek. A total there were 553 individuals of small terrestrial mammals caught and we noted nine species: Microtus arvalis, Microtus. agrestis, Micromys minutus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Sorex araneus, Sorex minutus, Neomys anomalus, Neomys fodiens, Crocidura suaveolens and Apodemus sylvaticus. Various characters of biotopes provide differently suitable conditions for the establishment of populations according to their habitat requirements. The predominant species in Mokré louky mowed and non-mowed was Microtus agrestis and in the Cirkvičný meadow and Jeţek it was Microtus arvalis. The highest abundance and diversity were recorded in Mokré louky mowed and non-mowed. The highest biomass was recorded in 2009 and 2010 in summer, when temperatures were highest. In 2011, there was the highest biomass in the spring, probably because the previous winter was very warm. The highest Simpson's index of species diversity was in Mokré louky mowed in 2010. The relative abundance was highest of Microtus agrestis, Apodemus sylvaticus and Sorex araneus, alternately in Mokré louky mowed and non-mowed. Microtus arvalis had the highest abundance for all three years in the Cirkvičný meadow. The probability of capture during capture was always increasing, reaching 100%, as in the Microtus arvalis, Microtus agrestis, as well Apodemus sylvaticus. The highest probability of re-capture was at Apodemus sylvaticus, where 33% of the second day and 43% of the third day. The results presented in the thesis contributed to the project NPV 2B06023 MŠMT.

Plans currently exist to extend the range of native woodland within the Scottish Highlands. The effects of such an expansion on birds, mammals and above ground invertebrates have been previously been investigated, but little consideration has been given to soil invertebrates. This research looks at effects of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) regeneration on the meso- and macro- soil invertebrate communities. Within the Abernethy Forest Reserve (the largest remaining tract of native Scots pine woodland within the UK) mature woodland (pine-dominated) and moorland (Calluna vulgaris-dominated) sites were chosen on the three soil types present; an iron podzol, humus-iron podzol and peat. Three intermediate regeneration sites, upon two of the soil types, were also selected based on tree density and diameter at breast height (dbh). Together these sites formed two transects representing succession from moorland to mature woodland on the two soil types. At each site soil invertebrates were collected to a depth of 0.1 in and pitfall traps set. Litter bags were placed at the woodland and moorland sites to examine invertebrate succession during Pinus and Calluna litter decomposition. All invertebrates were identified to order and oribatid mites identified further using the morphospecies technique. The influences of soil type, depth, season and tree age on invertebrate communities were analysed using TWINSPAN and CANOCO. Results suggested that differences were present in invertebrate abundance and community structure between the two soil types, with more variation occurring along the peat transect than podzol transect. A number of oribatid morphospecies showed differences in density between transect sites and indicator species were present which separated the younger regenerating sites form older woodland. CANOCO analysis demonstrated that this was primarily due to changes in soil pH and temperature. In litter bags, Calluna showed significantly greater colonisation compared with Pinus at all sites and woodland litter bags supported a greater diversity of invertebrates than comparable moorland bags. Calluna litter is more complex than Pinus and may therefore provide a greater number of niches for invertebrates and shelter from prey. Differences between sites may be due to the presence of species adapted to utilising both litter types at the woodland end of the transect. In general concentrations of N and P significantly influenced the community composition within litter bags (pc0.05), but there were no significant relationships with other macronutrients. This work has shown that there are differences in the invertebrate community composition during the regeneration of Scots pine and decomposition of litter, however it is currently unclear whether these changes are truly successional.

The aim of this investigation was to study the effect of fine bubble aeration on the relative amounts of N species, specifically NH 3 and NI-I4 within cattle slurry. Research into farm waste treatment systems has mainly concentrated on pig waste, yet cattle slurry treatment presents a challenging and relatively neglected research area. Farrell (1996) developed a fine bubble aeration treatment system and studied the effects of aeration on physical, chemical and fertiliser quality of slurry. He noted substantial loses of total Kjeldahl N from aerated slurry. This is a major concern as stripped NH3 can present a significant atmospheric pollutant. Here aeration treatment was studied at laboratory-scale (1 litre) and pilot-scale (100 litres). Air was externally supplied to tubular fine bubble diffusers. Initially a settleable floculative microbial culture was developed using batch-to-batch aeration that was continuously aerated for a maximum of 5 days. Treatment conditions were varied to study effects of aeration rate, temperature, pH and the addition of an adapted microbial culture upon N species within the slurry. The exhaust gases from the aeration bioreactors passed through a chemical capture system. Slurry samples were obtained during treatment to establish the chemical and biological changes. Finally, the effect of aeration on the fertiliser value of the treated slurry was studied. Experiments at laboratory-scale showed that N was released as NH 3 within the exhaust gases and that there were major changes in the amount and type of N species within the slurry. Increasing the pH of the slurry increased the quantity of NH3 released. Similar increases in rates of NH 3 release were shown for aeration rates up to 0.2 vvm and temperature up to 60 °C. The optimum conditions for NH3 stripping were found to be alkaline pH, high aeration rate and high temperature. At low aeration rates and low temperatures, there was a 96.59 % conservation of NH3 . The addition of an adapted microbial culture minimises the loss of N from the system, through the conversion of volatile N into organic microbial N fraction. In conserving N it was found that problems with sedimentation occurred. To improve rates of pollutant reduction it was necessary to increase temperature and aeration rates. Increasing temperature from 50 °C to 60 °C was found to have a negligible additional effect upon the biological degradation of the organic material within the slurry. This treatment strategy requires a capture system to trap the released NH3 . The aerobic treatment of cattle slurry was not found to have a significant effect upon the growth of maize in comparison to that of unaerated cattle slurry. Recommendations are made for operating conditions of an aerobic treatment system that will enable N to be either stripped from, or conserved within the slurry.

Humans bioaccumulate organochlorine pesticides throughout their lifetime due to the global environmental presence and physiochemical properties of these compounds, however, monitoring the current and lifetime exposure of the population to these compounds is complex. The collection and analysis of questionnaire data from Indonesia, human milk samples from Indonesian and UK born mothers living in Indonesia and milk samples during a 9-month lactation period as described in this thesis significantly contributes to the knowledge of human exposure to organochlorine pesticides and residue levels in human milk. Residue levels in milk samples from Indonesian mothers were positively correlated with the mother's age and parity, were higher in samples from urban than rural areas and did not show consistent correlations with diet. Correlations between pesticide levels and duration of lactation were not identified in a series of samples from the same mother or in samples from Indonesia. On a global scale residue levels from Indonesian samples were low, but p,p'-DDT was detectable in all samples and levels of y-HCH and p,p'-DDD were amongst the highest reported. The results from Indonesia including UK born women living in Indonesia coupled with existing data confirmed that the environment of Indonesia is contaminated with organochlorine pesticides and individuals had higher exposures in Indonesia than the UK. However, residue levels in milk samples from Indonesian women did not reflect the very high levels previously reported in local foods. An investigation into trends of organochiorine residue levels in human milk, foods and diets revealed that the consumption of animal fat significantly influenced human exposure and corresponding levels in human milk. Due to the extremely low consumption of animal fats by Indonesian people, the organochlorine levels detected in human milk did not reflect the environmental levels of these compounds. An exposure assessment model for residential Propoxur use in Indonesia was developed. It revealed that despite daily exposures, only low levels of Propoxur were likely to be absorbed and Propoxur exposure was unlikely to have toxicological effects. Despite more than 50 years of research, the detrimental effects of organochiorine pesticides in human milk have not been identified. The results indicated that 28% of Indonesian infants exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for Dieldrin, 90% exceeded the acute reference dose for total DDT and 24% for Endosulfan.

The extraction, processing and smelting of ores has long been responsible for the release of heavy metals into the fluvial environment. As a consequence numerous studies have reported enhanced metal concentrations found in association with the sediments of rivers and in their surrounding floodplains. This thesis investigates the mobilisation, transport and the overbank deposition of sediment-associated heavy metals during flood events on the River Swale, North Yorkshire. This catchment has a prolonged history of mining for lead and zinc which spans approximately 2,000 years. Contemporary overbank sediment deposits for the fbll length of the river system were examined following three flood events that occurred in 2002. The quantity of sediment deposited and concentrations of associated metals were determined as well as the metal deposition flux and speciation, by using various analytical procedures including a nitric acid digestion and the BCR sequential extraction method. Physical characteristics such as sediment grain size, pH, loss on ignition and carbonate content were also investigated. Floodplain sedimentation rates were relatively high during the floods and the patterns in metal concentrations were both spatially and temporally consistent. The locations of most concern were located within the headwaters of the catchment where lead concentrations exceeded 25,000 mg kg'. Investigations into the mobility of the sediment-associated metals revealed that up to 88% of cadmium was found within the exchangeable phase of the sediment, however the concentrations of exchangeable lead and zinc were much higher and surpassed UK Government guidelines for crop growth and grazing livestock. Concentrations of exchangeable lead and zinc reached 19,241 mg kg' and 1,457 mg kg' respectively. Locations of 'exchangeable metal hotspots' with high levels of bioavailable metals were repeatedly found within the upper 21 km of the catchnent, around the confluence of tributaries which drain once intensively mined areas. These very high concentrations potentially pose a risk to flora and fauna that grow or graze on the floodplain surrounding the River Swale if they are taken up or ingested. Remediation measures could be adopted to treat either the source of metals in order to prevent them entering the fluvial system, reduce the concentrations already in the contaminated floodplain, or minimise the area inundated by flood waters. Alternatively, land management strategies could be adopted in order to reduce the potential for metal uptake by plants and animals and subsequently entering into the foodchain.

Glutathione (y-glutamylcysteinylglycine) is a vital and ubiquitous component of biological systems that has been demonstrated to have a protective role against the toxicity of a wide array of xenobiotics and their metabolic by-products. It has been shown to detoxify many metals by direct and indirect mechanisms; but this is not the case with Al. Inputs of this metal into the environment have increased substantially since the industrial revolution, due to its use in industrial processes and the advent of acid rain. As such, it is crucial that the full implications of such exposure upon the environment is investigated thoroughly. Levels of Cu have also increased, but, on account of its greater acute toxicity, it has been the focus of a much larger amount of research. These two metals (but principally Al) are the focus of both the ecotoxicological and biochemical research herein. Work involving aspects of Al and Cu behaviour and toxicity has been carried out at both an ecosystem and organism level. Ecosystem studies, in the form of chemodynamics experiments, have been conducted in an attempt to understand and contrast their transport in the aqueous environment and the speciation that occurs as a result. These concentrations have then been put into the context of what happened to two test species (the brine shrimp Artemiafranciscana and the bacterium Vibrio fischerii), and, in the case of Al, a field study entailing chemical and biological monitoring. In addition, studies were undertaken which showed that Al bioaccumulates in A. franciscana (which is farmed for aquaculture and is increasingly utilised in toxicity studies as a substitute for higher animals). Further toxicity tests, involving the depletion of glutathione in A. franciscana, showed that the tripeptide has a protective effect against the toxicity of the metal to these creatures. An analytical method (utilising high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection) was then developed for measuring reduced and oxidized glutathione in A. franciscana. This was then applied to investigate the relationship between glutathione redox status and Al exposure in aqueous systems. Reduced glutathione was shown to be depleted and subsequently induced by Al exposure, and to have a protective role against Al toxicity. Furthermore, its redox status indicated that free radical production was not the underlying mechanism responsible for the deleterious effects of Al in A. franciscana, as with many other metals studied. NMR studies were conducted which showed an interaction between Al and glutathione. These studies suggest a possible detoxification and excretion mechanism for Al involving glutathione.