The combustion dynamics and stability are dependent on the quality of mixing and vaporization of the liquid fuel in the pre-mixer. The vaporization characteristics of different blends of biofuel droplets injected into the air stream in the pre-mixer are modeled in this current study. The focus of this work is on the blended alternate fuels which are lately being considered for commercial use. Two major alternate fuels analyzed are ethanol and Rapeseed Methyl Esters (RME). Ethanol is being used as a substitute for gasoline, while RME is an alternative for diesel. In the current work, the vaporization characteristics of a single droplet in a simple pre-mixer has been studied for pure ethanol and RME in a hot air jet at a temperature of 800 K. In addition, the behavior of the fuels when they are mixed with conventional fuels like gasoline and diesel is also studied. Temperature gradients and vaporization efficiency for different blends of bio-conventional fuel mixture are compared with one another. The model was validated using an experiment involving convection heating of acoustically levitated fuel droplets and IR-thermography to visualize and quantify the vaporization characteristics of different biofuel blends downstream of the pre-mixer. Results show that the 20 µm droplets of ethanol-gasoline 50-50 blend is completely evaporated in 1.1 msec, while 400 µm droplets vaporized only 65% in 80 msec. In gasoline-ethanol blends, pure gasoline is more volatile than pure ethanol. In spite of having higher vapor pressure, ethanol vaporizes slowly compared to gasoline, due to the fact that latent heat of vaporization is higher for ethanol. For gasoline-ethanol blended fuels, ethanol component vaporizes faster. This is because in blended fuels gasoline and ethanol attain the same temperature and ethanol vapor pressure is higher than that for gasoline. In the case of RME-diesel blends, initially diesel vaporizes faster up to 550K, and above this temperature, vapor pressure of RME becomes dominant resulting in faster vaporization of RME. Current work also looks into the effect of non-volatile impurities present in biofuels. Depending on source and extraction process, fuels carry impurities which impact vaporization process. In this work these effects on ethanol blended fuel have been studied for different concentration of impurities. The presence of non-volatile impurities reduces the vaporization rate by reducing the mass fraction of the volatile component at the surface. However, impurities also increase the surface temperature of the droplet. Finally, the effects of hot and cold spots in the prevaporizer have been investigated. Due to inefficient design, prevaporizer may have local zones where the temperature of air increases or decreases very sharply. Droplets going through these abnormal temperature zones would vaporize at a different rate than others. Current study looks into these droplets to understand the vaporization pattern.

Incurring high economic cost due to medical imaging modalities, there is a need for a low-cost, on site, diagnostic screening tool for the early detection of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). We hypothesize that patients with TBI will exhibit temporal and spatial gradient dynamics in the thermal signature on the surface of the skin, and that these dynamics reflect the inflammatory process. Hence, we implemented far-infrared (FIR) thermography using a blunt TBI rat model to analyze changes in the external, surface temperature gradient as an indication of internal inflammation. Results show a consistent increase in average surface temperature after 0.5 days of recovery post-impact. The trend in average surface temperature decreases after 1 day of recovery with a continual decline observed after a 4-day recovery. After 7 days of recovery, the average surface temperature begins to increase with a substantial surge seen 14 days post-impact. The trend appears to correlate well with the inflammatory process.

The aim of the research was to develop the non-intrusive physiological measure of using human facial skin temperature change as an indicator of mental workload. The forehead and nose temperature were obtained via thermography from the participants who drove in a simulator driving environment and/or in instrumented car experiments. The NASA TLX and the Modified Cooper-Harper metrics were adopted to assess the subjective workload for the validation of the physiological measure. Three driving experiments were conducted in order to acquire the physiological response and the workload score for the performed tasks. Forehead temperature was very stable throughout the experiments. Nose temperature dropped significantly after the experimental drive for all conditions in simulator test. Experiment 1 (NASA TLX Group: N=10; MCH Group: N=14) used simulator driving with different terrains as loading tasks. Neither the significant difference of the subjective workload nor the temperature drop was detected between different terrain conditions. In experiment 2 (N=33), mental workload was increased in a controlled manner by the introduction of mental arithmetic tests to the primary simulated drive. The mental arithmetic test conditions provoked a significantly greater nose temperature drop and also a higher perceived workload than the conditions without the arithmetic test. A weak correlation between the nose temperature drop and the subjective workload metric was yielded from the experiments. In Experiment 3 (N=13), facial temperature response and subjective workload score were compared between the simulator test and on-road driving. Driving in the simulator resulted in higher subjective workload and greater nose temperature drop than in real-car driving. When participants perceived a higher workload for a task, their nose temperature exhibited a greater drop. A significant correlation between the nose temperature change and the subjective workload score was found. Actual or potential applications of this research include real-time and unobtrusive mental workload assessment for human-system interaction development.

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Energy conservation, efficiency, and environmental responsibility are priorities for modern energy technologies. The ever increasing demands for lower pollutants and higher performance have driven the development of low-emission gas turbine engines, operating at lean equivalence ratios and at increasingly higher turbine inlet temperatures. This has placed new constraints on gas turbine combustor design, particularly in regards to the cooling technologies available for the combustor liner walls. To optimize combustor thermal management, and in turn optimize overall engine performance, detailed measurements of the flame side heat transfer are required. However, given the challenging environment at which gas turbine combustors operate, there are currently only limited studies that quantify flame side combustor heat transfer; in particular at reacting conditions. The objective of the present work was to develop methodologies to measure heat transfer within a reacting gas turbine combustor. To accomplish this, an optically accessible research combustor system was designed and constructed at Virginia Tech, capable of operating at 650 K inlet temperature, maximum air mass flow rates of 1.3 kg/s, and flame temperatures over 1800 K. Flow and heat transfer measurements at non-reacting and reacting conditions were carried out for Reynolds numbers (Re) with respect to the combustor diameter ranging from ~11 500 to ~140 000 (depending on the condition). Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was used to measure the non-reacting flow field within the burner, leading to the identification of coherent structures in the flow that accounted for over 30% of the flow fluctuation kinetic energy along the swirling jet shear layers. The capability of infrared (IR) thermography to image surface temperatures through a fused silica (quartz) glass was demonstrated at non-reacting conditions. IR thermography was then used to measure the non-reacting steady state heat transfer along the combustor liner. A peak in heat transfer was identified at ~1 nozzle diameter downstream of the combustor dome plate. The peak Nusselt number along the liner was over 18 times higher than that predicted from fully developed turbulent pipe flow correlations, which have traditionally been used to estimate flame side combustor heat transfer. For the reacting measurements, a novel time-dependent heat transfer methodology was developed that allowed for the investigation of transient heat loads, including those occurring during engine ignition and shutdown. The methodology was validated at non-reacting conditions, by comparing results from an experiment with changing flow temperature, to the results obtained at steady state. The difference between the time-dependent and the steady state measurements were between 3% and 17.3% for different mass flow conditions. The time-dependent methodology was applied to reacting conditions for combustor Reynolds numbers of ~12 000 and ~24 000. At an equivalence ratio of ~0.5 and a combustor Reynolds number of ~12 000, the peak heat load location in reaction was shifted downstream by 0.2 nozzle diameters compared to the non-reacting cases. At higher equivalence ratios, and more visibly at a Reynolds number of ~24 000, the heat transfer distribution along the combustor liner exhibited two peaks, upstream and downstream of the impingement location (X/DN=0.8-1.0 and X/DN=2.5). Reacting PIV was performed at Re=12 000 showing the presence of a strong corner recirculation, which could potentially convect reactants upstream of the impingement point, leading to the double peak structure observed. The methodologies developed have provided insight into heat transfer within gas turbine combustors. The methods can be used to explore additional conditions and expand the dataset beyond what is presented, to fully characterize reacting combustor heat transfer. / Ph. D.

A wear test of men’s polypropylene indoor exercise prototypes was conducted to investigate heat and moisture measurements during exercise and compare the results to a man exercising in a partially nude condition. The usefulness of infrared thermography as instrumentation for observation of surface temperature during a wear test was also investigated. Based on Univariate Analysis of Variance with Repeated Measures, one prototype was shown to react in a more similar manner to the skin of a man exercising in a partially nude condition. Pearson Correlation was used to determine the relationships between the data from the infrared camera and the data from wearer sensation scales. Little correlation was found and the results were not consistent over time. Results from the data obtained with the infrared camera suggested other uses for the instrumentation, such as observation of heat flow properties of various fibers. A description of various methods and instrumentation for collecting heat and moisture data during a wear test is included. The wear test procedure and use of the infrared camera are described. / Master of Science

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) negatively impact worker's health, ability to work, and their quality of life. Non-invasive methods for assessing the physiological responses to workload may provide information on physiological markers leading to increased risk of WMSDs. The following study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using thermography to quantify differences in thermal readings of participants during and following a data entry task and assess the repeatability of thermal readings. Skin surface temperature measurements of the dorsal forearm were obtained from 12 participants (6 females, 6 males) during a data entry task (35 minutes) and a 30-minute post-task period. Participants also reported their perceived forearm discomfort during data entry and recovery. Three forearm analysis regions were analyzed based on statistical findings; Upper Left, Lower Left and Right regions. Temperature trends were found to increase during data entry and decrease during recovery. The Upper Left region was warmer during both data entry and recovery phases in comparison to the other regions. Repeatability of surface temperatures, based on intraclass correlations (ICCs), was found to be fair for magnitudes and trends during data entry, and poor for magnitudes and trends during recovery, despite higher significant correlations in the latter. Positive correlations were evident between subjective feelings of forearm discomfort trends and temperature trends in response to workload. No gender differences were found with regard to temperature measurements. This work contributes to the understanding of surface responses of the forearm during and following an applied stress, and to the literature supporting thermography as a non-invasive evaluative tool for assessing physiological responses during job tasks. / Master of Science

The study of flow fields and heat transfer characteristics inside a gas turbine combustor provides one of the most serious challenges for gas turbine researchers because of the harsh environment at high temperatures. Design improvements of gas turbine combustors for higher efficiency, reduced pollutant emissions, safety and durability require better understanding of combustion in swirl flows and thermal energy transfer from the turbulent reacting flows to solid surfaces. Therefore, accurate measurement and prediction of the flows and heat loads are indispensable. This dissertation presents flow details and wall heat flux measurements for reacting flow conditions in a model gas turbine combustor. The objective is to experimentally investigate the effects of combustor operating conditions on the reacting swirl flows and heat transfer on the liner wall. The results shows the behavior of swirling flows inside a combustor generated by an industrial lean pre-mixed, axial swirl fuel nozzle and associated heat loads. Planar particle image velocimetry (PIV) data were analyzed to understand the characteristics of the flow field. Experiments were conducted with various air flow rates, equivalence ratios, pilot fuel split ratios, and inlet air temperatures. Methane and propane were used as fuel. Characterizing the impingement location on the liner, and the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) distribution were a main part of the investigation. Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) further analyzed the data to compare coherent structures in the reacting and non-reacting flows. Comparison between reacting and non-reacting flows yielded very striking differences. Self-similarity of the flow were observed at different operating conditions. Flow temperature measurements with a thermocouple scanning probe setup revealed the temperature distribution and flow structure. Features of premixed swirl flame were observed in the measurement. Non-uniformity of flow temperature near liner wall was observed ranging from 1000 K to 1400 K. The results provide insights on the driving mechanism of convection heat transfer. As a novel non-intrusive measurement technique for reacting flows, flame infrared radiation was measured with a thermographic camera. Features of the flame and swirl flow were observed from reconstructed map of measured IR radiation projection using Abel transformation. Flow structures in the infrared measurement agreed with observations of flame luminosity images and the temperature map. The effect of equivalence ratio on the IR radiation was observed. Liner wall temperature and heat transfer were measured with infrared thermographic camera. The combustor was operated under reacting condition to test realistic heat load inside the industrial combustors. Using quartz glass liner and KG2 filter glass, the IR camera could measure inner wall surface temperature through the glass at high temperature. Time resolved axial distributions of inner/outer wall temperature were obtained, and hot side heat flux distribution was also calculated from time accurate solution of finite difference method. The information about flows and wall heat transfer found in this work are beneficial for numerical simulations for optimized combustor cooling design. Measurement data of flow temperature, velocity field, infrared radiation, and heat transfer can be used as validation purpose or for direct inputs as boundary conditions. Time-independent location of peak location of liner wall temperature was found from time resolved wall temperature measurements and PIV flow measurements. This indicates the location where the cooling design should be able to compensate for the temperature increase in lean premixed swirl combustors. The characteristics on the swirl flows found in this study points out that the reacting changes the flow structure significantly, while the operating conditions has minor effect on the structure. The limitation of non-reacting testing must be well considered for experimental combustor studies. However, reacting testing can be performed cost-effectively for reduced number of conditions, utilizing self-similar characteristics of the flows found in this study. / Ph. D. / The study of flow fields and heat transfer characteristics inside a gas turbine combustor provides one of the most serious challenges for gas turbine researchers because of the harsh environment at high temperatures. Design improvements of gas turbine combustors for higher efficiency, reduced pollutant emissions, safety and durability require better understanding of combustion in swirl flows and thermal energy transfer from the turbulent reacting flows to solid surfaces. Therefore, accurate measurement and prediction of the flows and heat loads are indispensable. This dissertation presents flow details and wall heat flux measurements for reacting flow conditions in a model gas turbine combustor. The information about flows and wall heat transfer found in this work are beneficial for numerical simulations for optimized combustor cooling design. Measurement data of flow temperature, velocity field, infrared radiation, and heat transfer can be used as validation purpose or for direct inputs as boundary conditions. Time-independent location of peak location of liner wall temperature was found from time resolved wall temperature measurements and PIV flow measurements. This indicates the location where the cooling design should be able to compensate for the temperature increase in lean premixed swirl combustors. The characteristics on the swirl flows found in this study points out that the reacting changes the flow structure significantly, while the operating conditions has minor effect on the structure. The limitation of non-reacting testing must be well considered for experimental combustor studies. However, reacting testing can be performed cost-effectively for reduced number of conditions, utilizing self-similar characteristics of the flows found in this study.

Gas turbine vanes find themselves in very hostile environments – extremely high temperature combustion gases, much exceeding material melting temperatures, flowing over them at enormous pressures. It is necessitated due to the increased efficiency and power output at these conditions. However, this also means that, in spite of the technological advancements made, these parts need frequent repairing compared to parts placed in milder environments. Primarily due to economic reasons, gas turbine parts are repaired by companies other than the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). While multitude of condition monitoring techniques have been developed and are used in the industry for regular maintenance checks, there is no easy way to characterize the impact on thermal performance of the repairing processes involved. This thesis reports the development of a technique to address this issue. It also chronicles the test rig design, experiments conducted, development and significance of the thermal performance metric. Heated air (250 ̊C – 300 ̊C) is flown through the internal cooling passages of 8 samples each of OEM and repaired parts at two different pressure ratios (vane inlet over ambient pressure), 1.1 and 1.3. First, steady state mass flow rates through each airfoil (one part is a cluster of 4 airfoils) is experimentally determined and compared among the OEM and repaired sample sets. Second, a transient experiment is run and the surface temperatures of the airfoils are measured using multiple infrared cameras viewing both the pressure and suction side of the airfoils. A parameter involving localized vane surface temperature, airfoil inlet temperature and ambient temperature is formulated to characterize the vane thermal performance. Using statistical analysis, it is found that there is no significant difference between the OEM and repaired samples tested. The development of the discussed technique, it is expected, will help companies in the gas turbine vane repairing business to qualify their parts in a robust and efficient manner without the need to invest a lot of money in buying precision equipment, or, control chambers. Finally, a couple of further studies are recommended to further improve the qualifying procedure and thereby increase the efficiency of the technique. / Master of Science / Most manufactured parts, during its lifetime, go through wear and tear of some form. Some much more than others – a gas turbine vane is one example, owing to the hostile environments it finds itself in. While repairing turbine vanes make economic sense instead of replacing the worn-out vanes with new ones, due care must be taken to ensure that the repairs pass high quality standards of the original manufactured parts. Most, if not all, companies in the turbine repairing business rely on room-temperature air-flow testing through the internal passages of these vanes to qualify their repaired parts. This is done partly due to the complexity in replicating engine-like conditions in a test environment in addition to being very time-intensive. While room-temperature air flow comparison between repaired and original parts is a necessary test, it does not paint the whole picture. Thermal performance, or, how the vane exchanges heat with the surrounding media, is the other part which completes the puzzle. A plurality of techniques has been developed to ascertain the thermal performance of gas turbine vanes, however, these are limited in the scope of their applicability – the reason why industry is still mostly relying on airflow measurements for their part qualification. In this study, a new technique has been proposed which is agnostic of the unavoidable variations in operating conditions and easy to apply while still upholding high quality standards. This translates to huge savings to organizations which are in the business of repairing original parts, not necessarily restricted to gas turbine industry.

Infrared transition location estimates can be fast and useful measurements in wind tunnel and flight tests. Because turbulent boundary layers have a much higher rate of convective heat transfer than laminar boundary layers, a difference in surface temperature can be observed between turbulent and laminar regions of an airfoil at a different temperature than the free stream air temperature. Various implementations of this technique are examined in a wind tunnel. These include using a heat lamp as an external source and circulating fluid inside of the airfoil. Furthermore, ABS plastic and aluminum airfoils are tested with and without coatings such as black paint and surface wraps. The results show that thermal conduction within the model and surface reflections are the driving issues in designing an IR system for detecting transition. Aluminum has a high thermal diffusivity so is a poor choice for this method. However, its performance can be improved using an insulating layer. Internal fluid circulation was far more successful than the heat lamp because it eliminates the reflected IR due to the heat lamp. However, using smooth surface wraps can mitigate reflection issues caused by the heat lamps by reducing the scatter within the reflection, producing an IR image with fewer contaminating reflections.