One of the key differentiators in physical retail environments compared to online shopping is the opportunity of using touch to physically evaluate products. Previous studies have ascertained the effect of touch on the evaluation outcome of retail product offerings. What is not known, however, is the type of shopper characteristics associated with the type of touch that shoppers seek. This thesis examines two types of need for touch, one affective and the other cognitive in nature. It argues that these two types of need for touch are likely to be influenced by different sets of factors and have largely different consequences. Key literature is first reviewed and a conceptual framework comprising the various hypotheses is proposed and then empirically tested. Pre-studies are used to test and refine the constructs and to develop the final questionnaire. A total of 318 respondents who shop at physical retail outlets form the sample for this research. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is used to assess the fit of the measurement components of the model and to further refine the constructs. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is used to empirically test the proposed hypotheses. The results show how personality, lifestyle traits, consumers’ perceived knowledge and choice goals form a sequential process leading to different tactile inputs that consumers seek in a retail setting. Among the consequences, results show that consumers employing affective touch are likely to purchase impulsively. Results also show that both types of consumers, those employing affective and those employing cognitive touch, find satisfaction with the decision-making process, though consumers who employ cognitive touch also tend to feel outcome regret due to over-consideration. The research also provides valuable information to managers by separating consumers requiring varying forms of touch into identifiable segments. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are also provided.

This thesis represents the first urban case study of public houses at all levels of the victualling hierarchy (inns, taverns and alehouses) in an early modern English context. Moving beyond representational economies, and emphasising social practice, the study mobilises the administrative, judicial and fiscal records of the borough and port of Southampton to reconstruct a ‘landscape of drink’ in all its institutional variety: its geographical and physical dispositions; the agents who made livelihoods and joined company in it; a full range of social, economic and political functions; and its relationship to public order and urban stability. The study emphasises the local particularity of the topographical, socio-economic and jurisdictional frameworks that structured public drinking spaces and cultures, and, drawing on interdisciplinary impulses from cultural geography and architectural theory, pays particular attention to the constitutive role of the material and spatial properties of early modern public houses in determining the range and meaning of the activities which they enclosed. Far from being regarded as problematic or marginal spatial constituents of the early modern port, these distinctive urban locales emerge as central to the imaginative, economic and social worlds of early modern town-dwellers and visitors as well as to the governing strategies of the corporation itself.

Emotion research in sensory and consumer science has gathered significant momentum over recent years and the development of effective emotion measurement methods is a priority in this rapidly growing area. The aim of this research was to advance the use of consumer-led emotion lexicons by using focus groups to increase the efficiency of lexicon generation and by decreasing the number of consumer response categories. In parallel, the ability of the newly generated reduced lexicon to discriminate emotional response across different gender and age groups, and across sensorially distinct beer samples, was evaluated. The new approach was largely effective at discriminating across samples and revealed significant differences in emotional response between genders and between age groups. The reduced lexicon was compared to a full lexicon to ascertain their relative efficacies. Whilst there were differences between the two form lengths, neither was convincingly more effective at sample discrimination than the other, although the full form better differentiated between age groups. The reduced form was also applied to cross-cultural comparisons through the generation of a reduced product-specific consumer-led emotion lexicon in Spain. As in the UK, the approach discriminated well between samples and was able to differentiate between consumer groups. Comparing Spanish and UK responses, ratings of emotions associated with pleasure/pleasantness were similar but there were differences in the use of emotions associated with arousal/engagement/activation. This new methodology was therefore demonstrated to be a valuable tool for investigating cross-cultural emotional response. The approach developed in this thesis provides researchers with an enhanced consumer-led emotion methodology for use with food and beverages. As well as being relatively quick, the approach has been proven to differentiate between products and reveal differences concerning emotional response across different consumer groups and between cultures. These attributes make this emotional measurement approach extremely valuable to this young research area.

Chocolate is consumed in large quantities, but is high in fat and calories, and has limited nutritional benefits. Producing reduced-fat chocolate offers a way of reducing energy consumed, if the consumer will accept the product. The aims of the research presented in this thesis were: i) to investigate consumer response to reduced-fat chocolate; ii) to investigate formulation routes for producing a reduced fat chocolate. Focus group data indicated ambivalence towards chocolate, with some negativity towards the concept of a reduced-fat indulgent product. By manipulating label information it was shown that whilst consumers expected to like chocolate labelled ‘reduced-fat’ less than the standard chocolate, ratings of actual liking and of sensory attributes were similar. Thus, personal experience plays a greater role than expectations. This suggests that if the sensory characteristics of a reduced-fat chocolate can be matched to a standard chocolate, actual liking should not be affected. Packaging concepts indicated how different components of the package affect liking. Water in oil cocoa butter emulsions were produced using a high shear mixer and a margarine line. Formulation changes (emulsifier type and concentration, and gelatin concentration) and processing parameters (shaft speeds and temperatures, and flow rate) were considered. All emulsions had small droplets (typically 1-5μm) and little ‘free water’. When produced on the margarine line fat crystals in polymorphic form V were produced. Crystalline shells were also observed at the droplet interface. Pilot plant experiments resulted in comparable emulsions, with small droplets and fat crystals in form V. Although a full chocolate was not produced, the potential for margarine technology to produce a reduced-fat chocolate was demonstrated.

Development of mucoadhesive biopolymer has received great attention in the pharmaceutical application due to its ability to retain the drug dosage at the specific targeted area. This special property could be applied in food formulation for optimum delivery of the active ingredients in the mouth. This research was carried out to study, correlate and review several in vitro analytical methods that can be used in development process for characterisation of mucoadhesive polymer. Four well known mucoadhesive biopolymers namely, chitosan, pectin, sodium alginate and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) were used in this study. A modified rheological characterisation was used to study the interaction between the biopolymers with mucin and the assessment was based on the viscosity synergism. The detachment force characterisation was carried out via pull-off and tensile test using texture analyser and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Kinetic interaction study was done using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCMD) and interpretation of data from the modified rheological characterisation. Meanwhile, the removal of biopolymer emulsion after water flushing in a flow cell was observed under a microscope. It was found that mucoadhesion properties of tested biopolymers were affected by the concentration of biopolymer solutions, molecular weight, contact time, ionic strength and pH. Sodium alginate was characterised as the most mucoadhesive material by all the methods while QCMD shows CMC has the highest interaction with mucin layer compared to sodium alginate and pectin.

The mouthfeel and texture of food and beverage products play an important role in consumer liking. However, to date these key sensory properties have received limited attention from researchers and our understanding of texture and mouthfeel perception in food remains restricted. For tea, a popular beverage enjoyed around the globe, astringency is the most frequently highlighted mouthfeel attribute. Since black tea is commonly consumed with milk and sugar, research investigating the mouthfeel of tea as impact by these added ingredients is of commercial interest. The aim of this PhD research was to gain a better understanding of the mouthfeel perception of black tea beverages using sensory and instrumental methods. In order to achieve this, a model system consisting of black tea instant powder, sugar, and fat (added as oil-in-water emulsion) was developed which allowed for the independent variation of the design factors (tea, sugar, fat). Firstly, a mouthfeel lexicon was developed using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), and the impact of tea, sugar and fat on the perception of selected attributes was assessed by a trained panel (n=10) using a Design of Experiments approach to generate predictive polynomial models from a D-optimal design. Furthermore, the temporal perception of astringency and bitterness over multiple sips of tea was assessed by a trained panel(n=9) using Time Intensity measures. The effect of sweetness and viscosity from sucrose was decoupled using sweeteners and thickeners and the effect of sugar on astringency and bitterness perception was investigated in more detail. Once the mouthfeel perception of black tea beverages was explored, instrumental methods were deployed to reveal possible correlations between instrumental parameters and mouthfeel perception. Two instrumental methods were used: a force plate to measure the frictional and vibrational behaviour of tea samples, whilst an accelerometer was used to measure vibrations related to tongue movements using a technique called “acoustic tribology”. The results showed that besides astringency, fat-driven attributes, such as “thickness”, “slipperiness” and “mouth coating”, play a significant role in the mouthfeel perception of black tea beverages. Predictive polynomial models revealed the complex effects of key ingredients on the mouthfeel of tea. The results showed that tea was not a significant factor (p > 0.05) for the attributes “thickness” and “mouth coating”, whereas for all other attributes all three design factors affected perception significantly (p < 0.001). It was found that astringent and bitter intensity was reduced by the addition of fat and sugar in a similar fashion. However, when evaluated over time, it was found that astringency and bitterness had distinctly different temporal profiles in tea, illustrating the importance of temporal ratings. A build-up in astringency and bitterness intensity with increasing number of sips gave further insight into the perception of both attributes during tea consumption, representing a normal tea drinking behaviour. Furthermore, the data indicated that sugar reduces astringency due to its sweetness and not the rise in viscosity. The results from the force plate experiment showed that the addition of 5% fat significantly reduced the friction coefficient of tea samples (p < 0.0001) and that an addition of 10% fat did not reduce the friction coefficient further (p=0.97). It was also shown that the friction coefficient did not vary significantly between tea levels (p=0.324). The results also revealed that fat-driven attributes were negatively correlated to friction and that astringency was a complex precept, which was difficult to predict using instrumental methods, resulting in a poor correlation between friction coefficient and astringency (R2=0.16). The results from the “acoustic tribology” experiment indicated that mouthfeel was linked to measured vibrations caused by tongue movements. Furthermore, differences in tea composition resulted in different oral vibrations, and it was observed that for example “thick” is positively correlated to low frequency vibrations. The results of this research on the perceived mouthfeel of tea provide much needed insight into this key sensory property of tea. These results will be further useful for product developers interested in producing ready-todrink tea beverages where mouthfeel is likely to be a critical factor for consumer liking and commercial success.

This thesis aims to advance the understanding of ultrasonic processing for the alteration of food microstructures. It considers the impact of ultrasonic processing upon protein structure and for emulsification. It was shown that ultrasound treatment of proteins reduced the hydrodynamic volume of protein aggregates by ultrasonic cavitations. Insufficient acoustic energy was provided to achieve proteolysis. Emulsions prepared with ultrasound treated milk protein isolate, pea protein isolate and bovine gelatin yielded smaller, stable emulsion droplets in comparison to their untreated counterparts. This behaviour is ascribed to more rapid adsorption of protein at the oil-water interface and improved interfacial packing, due to reduction in protein aggregate size. The droplet size of emulsions with sufficient emulsifier (> 0.5 wt. %) emulsion droplet size can be predicted from a mathematical relation between emulsion droplet size (d3,2) and energy density (Ev), an inverse power law. Droplet size predictions were unattainable at low emulsifier concentrations (≤ 0.5 wt. %) due to re-coalescence behaviour attributed to insufficiency of emulsifier and droplet collisions within the acoustic field. Continuous processing yields more efficient utilisation of acoustic energy in comparison to batch configurations due to the intense transmission of acoustic energy within the smaller processing volumes.

This research seeks to establish the Irish migrant experience within extant sociological theories of ethnic entrepreneurship. The comparative study highlights the interface between the Irish migration experience and bar entrepreneurship within Birmingham (UK) and Chicago (US). Three interrelated primary aims characterise the research. Firstly, to explain why the Irish diaspora is excluded from ethnic entrepreneurship debates and to show where their experience as bar entrepreneurs 'fits' within the established literature. Secondly, to argue that the 'racist' stereotype of the Irish and drink as synonymous impacts upon the Irish migrant bar proprietor in the sense that the niche is perceived as a 'natural' form of economic activity. Thirdly, to show how opportunities for economic upward mobility within the niche are greater for the Irish in Chicago compared to Birmingham. A theory of ethnic entrepreneurship, termed the `interactive'model, serves as a conceptual framework for addressing the primary aims. The methodology includes cross -national qualitative field work. During the research process 42 semi-structured interviews were conducted in Irish run bars, of which 21 are in Chicago and 21 in Birmingham. To preserve the anonymity of the respondents none of the respondents are mentioned by name or establishment. A number of conclusions are presented below with regard to the original aims: (1) the ethnic entrepreneurship theories commenced from a narrowly defined framework which excluded the form of self employment in which the Irish are overrepresented; (2) an explanation of why the Irish remain ghettoised in particular jobs requires an understanding of their migration tradition; (3) the niche of bar proprietor is perceived as a 'natural' form of self employment because of the 'racist' stereotype of the Irish and drink as synonymous; (4) the stereotype has not prevented the Irish from achieving economic success within the US; (5) during the time this research was operationalised bar entrepreneurship did not afford a greater opportunity for upward mobility in Chicago compared to Birmingham; (6) the bar business is a vulnerable labour intensive form of economic activity which occupies a subordinate relationship with the state and larger capitals; (7) the economic strategy of constructing a 'stage Irish identity' within a bar links to the `racist'stereotype that bars are the 'natural' habitat of the Irish.

Lipids are minor constituents of wheat flour, but are functional in bread making. As a result they have been extensively studied, but the published results are conflicting. It was therefore the objective of this study to understand better the impact of wheat lipids on wheat flour functionality and to propose approaches for positive modification of the flours. Initial work established quantitative and qualitative assessment methods for the non-starch lipids occurring in starch based systems. Seven solvent systems were compared for their ability to extract the non- starch lipids at ambient temperature. The choice of solvent system greatly influenced the total extractable amounts of lipid and there were differences in the relative composition. Bligh and Dyer methodology showed good extraction ability based on the total amount of non-starch lipids and there was good representation of the different lipid classes (neutral lipids, glycolipids, phospholipids). As this method was reasonable fast, with high extraction ability and showed low coefficient of variation (typically 16%) it was used in subsequent studies including the assessment of lipids in wheats of different variety and the levels and class of lipids segregating in the different mill fractions. As part of a larger study the impact of agriculture based variation in wheat flour chemistry and quality parameters was tested on high quality wheat varieties. Wheat variety was found as the major factor determining wheat flour properties, but environmental effects and post- harvest processing i.e. milling also had an impact. Correlations were made for the composition, flour quality parameters and the bread quality and results showed that whilst proteins are a major determinant for bread texture, lipids significantly influenced bread volume with non-polar lipids significantly and positively associated with bread volume, while the phospholipids reduced dough resistance and therefore may be associated with a decrease in loaf volume. Despite the acknowledged limitation of the data sets in some aspects, the wheats were tested for their “stability” within and over the growing sites. From these data, suggested wheat varieties worthy of further examination have been made. To see if positive modifications could be induced into wheat flours the technique of cold plasma (0.2-0.4 Wcm-2) was applied. It was shown that measureable free fatty acids and phospholipids significantly reduced after treatment and that there was a shift towards higher molecular weight proteins. Markers of oxidation increased and there was a significant increase in hydrogen peroxide and the formation of secondary oxidation products (n-hexanal). All the changes that occurred in the wheat flour during cold plasma treatment ultimately resulted in stronger dough. This suggests that cold plasma is an effective treatment for modifying functionality and enhancing the oxidative state of wheat flour.

Diet plays a pivotal role in preventing, managing, and reducing the risk of weight gain, diabetes and heart disease. Increasing pressure is directed towards food manufacturers to offer healthier options. The challenge is to develop products which are both nutritious and accepted by the consumer. Oral sensitivity, and therefore product perception, varies greatly amongst individuals, and likely affects food choice. Taste phenotype and genotype are frequently proposed as markers for overall oral sensitivity. This thesis performs fundamental research to further current understanding of the impact of taste phenotype and genotype on the response to oral stimuli. The effect of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) taster status (PTS), fungiform papillae density, TAS2R38 and gustin rs2274333 genotype on the perceived intensity of prototypical tastants and metallic stimuli is explored. Experiments were first conducted to develop oral stimuli for use in the subsequent fMRI studies, which interestingly identified that some metallic stimuli may have a gustatory component. Perceptually, few or no differences were identified across taste phenotypes or genotypes. Interestingly, functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) identified variation in cortical processing that was associated with PTS. PROP intensity ratings were found to correlate with cortical activation in the anterior insula, an area of the brain thought to be the primary gustatory cortex, in response to sweet and metallic stimuli, but not for sour, salt, bitter or umami stimuli. These limited differences observed may have been due to the occurrence of a concentration effect, where the increased gustatory sensitivity frequently associated with PROP tasters compared to PROP non-tasters was lost when administering strong supra-threshold stimuli used in the current study. These findings are of interest to food manufacturers and health professionals as they could indicate that taste phenotype and genotype has less impact on product perception, and therefore food choice, than previously proposed. Thermal taster status (TTS) refers to a new taste phenotype in which individuals perceive phantom tastes when the tongue is thermally stimulated, whilst thermal non-tasters (TnTs) only perceive temperature. In this thesis, variation in the phantom tastes reported by thermal tasters (TTs) are explored, and for the first time the temporal phantom taste response is measured. Different categories of temporal taste responses are identified, and interestingly it is shown that phantom tastes are perceived at variable temperature ranges across both TTs and taste qualities. Importantly, the onset of sweet taste was found to occur as the temperature increased between 22-35°C, supporting the hypothesis that the TRPM5 may be involved in sweet phantom taste responses. This is the first study to assess the brain’s response when thermally stimulating the tongue of TTs to elicit a phantom taste response. Interestingly, when using fMRI it is shown that at the time when TTs perceive a phantom taste, cortical activation is induced in the anterior insula, which is thought to be the primary gustatory cortex. This indicates that thermal stimulation may activate temperature sensitive gustatory nerve fibres in TTs, and supports the hypothesis of cross wiring between gustatory and trigeminal nerves. When comparing the cortical response to thermal stimulation of the tongue across TTs and TnTs, greater activation is observed in oral somatosensory areas of the brain in TTs compared to TnTs. These findings show cortical processing differs across thermal taste phenotype, and supports evidence that thermal taster status may be a marker for oral sensitivity. This original research provides a valuable contribution towards understanding the effect of taste phenotype and genotype on perception of prototypical taste, metallic, and thermal stimuli. The novel multidisciplinary approach of utilising sensory evaluation and fMRI techniques has provided valuable insights into the impact of taste phenotype on gustatory responses, and has suggested possible mechanisms that may be involved in thermal taste phenotype.