The radical rise of global temperatures has put high pressure on the environment, leading to societal pressure towards politicians to reverse the trend. In light of this environmental crisis, economists all over the world agree that carbon taxes are the most cost-effective instrument for reducing carbon emissions. This study uses difference-in-differences analysis to examine the treatment effect of a carbon tax implementation in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Panel data from 24 OECD countries, between 1978 and 2004, is used throughout this study. This study has not found support that different levels of democracy and GDP per capita affect tax efficiency. Moreover, higher levels of urbanisation are seen to undermine the efficiency of a carbon tax, however, the result may be affected by confounding bias. Lastly, tax rate and tax coverage are both factors that seem to affect carbon tax efficiency.

This diploma thesis discusses how to set the real estate transfer tax. The goal is to put proposals to tax arrangements, or to consider its abolition. The main source of possibilities of changes is a comparison of Czech real estate transfer tax with the foreign models of taxation. The thesis describes the historical development of the tax in the Czech Republic and analyzes in details the current legislation. There is evaluated the effectiveness of the tax and its consistency with the principles of tax theory. From the comparative analysis of various options are inferred recommendations for changes in particular in the areas of determining the taxpayer, the procedures for checking the tax base, rates and breadth of the exemption. The thesis assessed the tax as an appropriate part of a modern tax system, and however, it shows necessity to make certain changes and to streamline the tax by increasing its tax rate and limiting exemptions width.

In order to assist governments in ensuring efficient housing markets and providing access to suitable housing conditions for all people, research about the functioning of housing markets is needed. My thesis, which is comprised of three essays that repre-sent the main chapters, contributes to the research on the economic processes that work within housing markets, especially with regard to challenges that arise from ur-ban concentration. In particular, I study the following research questions: • What are causes of vacancies in the housing market? • What are the effects of real estate transfer taxes on activity in the housing market? • What are the differences between counties in the provision of technical infra-structure? 1. Causes of Vacancies We summarize theoretical approaches, which may explain the mechanisms leading to vacancies under the assumptions of the standard market model, search and matching theory and behavioral economics. Concerning the latter, we propose a new frame-work to explain why and under which conditions homeowners are hesitant to sell their dwellings, which may lead to vacancies. In this framework, we highlight the fact that even if buyers and sellers are homogenous individuals, their willingness to pay differs depending on market developments. Under the assumptions of the standard market model, we hypothesize that vacancies only arise if the market price equals the suppliers’ minimum price. Next to that, we identify the following factors that could explain an increase in vacancies: Greater market power, higher heterogeneity between dwellings, low holding costs of dwellings, high list prices, a high share of small dwell-ings, less intermediaries and a shorter mandatory period of notice of tenants. Despite the wide range of models explaining vacancies, there is need for new theoretical frameworks. We evaluate the identified hypotheses in the theoretical literature by comparing them with the results found in the empirical studies. Some hypotheses have either been in-vestigated by the empirical literature only to a limited degree or have not been inves-tigated at all. Next to the positive analysis of the mechanisms that cause vacancies, we need to pose the normative question, if and under which circumstances vacancies should be considered problematic. Vacancies in the short run may be a necessity in a search and matching context to reach an efficient market outcome; i.e., to offer poten-tial buyers a heterogeneous pool of options to choose from and to fit their individual needs. Additionally, with the assumptions of behavioral economics, an owner of a vacant dwelling might find greater pleasure in speculating with the object than a buyer would enjoy living in it. However, vacancies could indicate a welfare loss if caused by a monopoly that artificially reduces the housing supply on a market. A reduction of information asymmetry could reduce vacancies and increase welfare. 2. Effects of Real Estate Transfer Taxes German states can set their own real estate transfer tax rates. To date, the real estate transfer tax rates range between 3.5% and 6.5%. Although the tax rates do not seem to be particularly high, the tax results in a relatively high tax amount to be paid; even small changes in the tax rate may cause buyers to accelerate a planned transaction to pay a lower tax rate. In our empirical analysis of different German states, we estimate that a one-percentage-point increase in the transfer tax produces significant anticipation effects for the month just before a tax is increased (about 43% more transactions before and 44% less after) and yields approximately 6% fewer overall transactions and therefore much lower market activity. We show that in many cases, the former first-best option – to buy or sell a single-family home – is apparently no longer the optimal choice. Thus, we expect ownership rates to decrease as letting apartments becomes more attractive than selling. This questions the wisdom of real estate transfer tax increases when other political measures that attempt to support homeownership creation are in place. Addi-tionally, retired households, which tend to stay in houses that are too large after their children have left, could be discouraged from downsizing to their actual needs. Indi-viduals may forgo better job offers in other regions or accept longer commutes, which can have negative consequences on urban labor markets. 3. Efficiency of County Road Provision When houses in urban areas are expensive, an adequate road network allows residents to locate further away from agglomeration centers. This takes pressure off housing prices and infrastructure systems in cities and supports housing markets in rural areas. I use the example of county roads to study whether counties differ in their efficiency of the provision of infrastructure. Efficiency refers to the use of economic resources (input) in the most technologically efficient manner to produce a certain amount of output. Studies on the efficient provision of roads incorporated the ‘quantity’ of roads (e.g., the length of the road network) and the ‘quality’ of roads (e.g., an index that measures road condition) as the relevant output indicators. I address two major problems of previous studies. First, to measure the quality of roads, I acquired new and improved data on road condition by county governments. Second, I focus on the data referring to a road network of approximately the same age. An old road network asks for more frequent maintenance and thus higher costs. Therefore, it is possible that governments with an older road network in their region could be identified as less efficient than governments with a newer road network, even if they do not actually employ their financial resources in a less efficient manner. The results of my study indicate that there are substantial efficiency differences and efficiency reserves in the provision of roads in eastern German counties: Depending on the specification, in the median county, the same level of outputs (i.e., area of roads and road condition) could be achieved using 48% to 70% fewer inputs (i.e., expendi-tures). I also find that my results differ greatly from existing studies applying proxy data for the quality of roads (e.g., the number of accidents).

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:34:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 JohnatanRSB_DISSERT.pdf: 3910794 bytes, checksum: 43d57ca72250e58dc10b9d5c0f6f4a53 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-12-06 / The Brazilian tax structure has specific characteristics and the performance level of government. The autonomy given to municipalities to manage their activities after the 1988 Constitution, made them highly dependent on intergovernmental transfers of resources, revealing the fragility of the administrative capacity of these entities. The vertical gap revealed by the constitutional structure of the Brazilian fiscal federalism model contributes to the formation of this specific feature that you are eroding the tax base and the ability of municipal own revenues. Although there was a better regulation of these transfers after the enactment of the Fiscal Responsibility Law, it is observed that the amount of resources transferred to the municipalities of Rio Grande do Norte is very high and is the main source of revenue of municipalities. In light of the theory of federalism and fiscal decentralization, in particular, the theories related to intergovernmental transfers, we seek to diagnose the transfers from the systematization of information on the origin, destination and value. We used the econometric model of System Dynamic Panel GMM in making the diagnosis and verification of the impact of transfers on public finances of the municipalities of the newborn, associated with a review in light of the theory of fiscal federalism and intergovernmental transfers. The paper presents some proposals for the transfer system and the composition of spending in order to contribute to greater tax efficiency / A estrutura fiscal brasileira apresenta caracter?sticas espec?ficas quanto ? atua??o das esferas de governo. A autonomia dada aos munic?pios para a gest?o de suas atividades, ap?s a constitui??o de 1988, os tornou altamente dependentes das transfer?ncias intergovernamentais de recursos, revelando a fragilidade da capacidade administrativa destes entes. A brecha vertical revelada pela estrutura constitucional do modelo de federalismo fiscal brasileiro contribui para a forma??o dessa caracter?stica espec?fica que acaba minando a base tribut?ria municipal e a capacidade de arrecada??o pr?pria. Embora tenha havido uma melhor regulamenta??o dessas transfer?ncias ap?s a promulga??o da Lei de Responsabilidade Fiscal, observa-se que a quantidade de recursos transferidos aos munic?pios do Rio Grande do Norte ? bastante elevada e constitui a principal fonte de receita desses munic?pios. ? luz da teoria do federalismo e descentraliza??o fiscal e, em particular, nas teorias relacionadas com as transfer?ncias intergovernamentais, busca-se diagnosticar as transfer?ncias a partir da sistematiza??o das informa??es quanto ? origem, o valor e o destino. Utilizou-se o modelo econom?trico de Painel Din?mico System GMM na elabora??o do diagn?stico e na verifica??o do impacto dessas transfer?ncias nas finan?as p?blicas dos munic?pios do RN, associado a uma an?lise ? luz da teoria de federalismo fiscal e das transfer?ncias intergovernamentais. O trabalho apresenta algumas proposi??es para o sistema de transfer?ncias e na composi??o dos gastos a fim de contribuir com uma maior efici?ncia fiscal

Multinational enterprises are continuously in search of investment opportunities to grow their businesses. For over two decades South Africa, being one of the economic powerhouses of Africa, has been one such target for global investors. A company planning to invest in South Africa will attempt to identify the most appropriate way to do so, for tax and non-tax reasons. However, tax consequences are one of the main factors influencing the decision of an investor. While certain companies choose to invest directly into the target country, the majority choose to set up a holding company outside of the investor country. Such a company is known as an intermediary holding company and is defined as a company which is interposed between a shareholder and its foreign subsidiary. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the best manner, for tax purposes, in which a foreign company would invest into South Africa, either directly or indirectly through an intermediary holding company. Should the intermediary holding company option be selected, the company will then need to select the country in which to base its intermediary holding company. Tax havens are commonly used as a base for intermediary holding companies, however, these may not be the most advantageous option in all cases. Literature on intermediary holding companies and tax havens is reviewed and thereafter the study analyses and compares the tax efficiency of a hypothetical UK company investing into South Africa using different options. The options available to the UK Company which are compared, include investing directly into South Africa or investing indirectly through an intermediary holding company based in either Cyprus, Mauritius or the Netherlands, all of which are commonly used as bases for intermediary holding companies. The comparative study on the different intermediary holding company options is performed based on the domestic tax laws of each country as well as the effects of the double tax agreements in force between these countries and other tax jurisdictions. Thereafter, the most tax efficient intermediary holding company option is compared to the tax efficiency of direct investment by the UK Company and a conclusion is reached on which is the best manner for such a company to invest into South Africa, for tax purposes. AFRIKAANS : Multi-nasionale ondernemings is voortdurend op soek na nuwe beleggingsgeleenthede ten einde besigheidsgroei te bewerkstelling. Internasionale beleggers sien Suid-Afrika nou al vir meer as twee dekades as ʼn toetreepunt tot geleenthede in Afrika, vanweë Suid-Afrika se status as een van die ekonomiese reuse in Afrika. Maatskappye wat beplan om in Suid-Afrika te belê sal ondersoek doen om die beste moontlike beleggings manier te vind. Talle besigheidsredes, waarvan belastingimplikasies een van die hoofoorwegings is, sal die faktore wees wat ʼn potensiële belegger se besluitneming beïnvloed. Terwyl sommige maatskappye verkies om direk in die beleggingsland te belê sal die meeste maatskappye eerder in ʼn houermaatskappy buite die beleggingsland belê. So ʼn maatskappy staan bekend as ʼn intermediêre houer maatskappy en word gedefinieer as ʼn “tussenganger” maatskappy wat as geleibuis optree tussen die aandeelhouer en die buitelandse filiaal. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie is om ondersoek in te stel na die beste metode, vanuit ʼn belastingoogpunt, vir ʼn buitelandse maatskappy om in Suid-Afrika te belê. Dit kan óf direk óf indirek deur middel van ʼn intermediêre houer maatskappy gedoen word. Indien die intermediêre houer maatskappy opsie gekies word, moet die maatskappy ook die land kies waarin die intermediêre houer maatskappy opgerig gaan word. Lande wat bekend is as belastingtoevlugsoorde word dikwels gekies om intermediêre houer maatskappye op te rig. Dit is egter nie in alle gevalle die mees voordeligste metode nie. Literatuur oor intermediêre houer maatskappye en belastingtoevlugsoorde word nagevors, waarna hierdie studie die belastingeffektiwiteit van ʼn hipotetiese Britse maatskappy, wat in Suid-Afrika belê, ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van verskillende opsies. Die opsies wat beskikbaar is en ondersoek sal word sluit in, direkte belegging in Suid-Afrika en belegging deur van ʼn intermediêre houer maatskappy gebruik te maak in Cyprus, Mauritius of Nederland. Al die vooraf genoemde lande is algemeen bekend daarvoor dat dit gebruik word om intermediêre houer maatskappye op te rig. Die verskillende intermediêre houer maatskappy opsies word met mekaar vergelyk, deur die belastingimplikasies van plaaslike belastingwetgewing van elke land, asook enige dubbele belastingooreenkomste van krag tussen hierdie lande en ander regsgebiede, te oorweeg. Die mees effektiewe intermediêre houer maatskappy opsie word dan vergelyk met die belastingeffektiwiteit van direkte belegging deur die Britse maatskappy. ʼn Gevolgtrekking word gemaak oor die metode wat die mees effektiefste belastinggevolge inhou vir ‘n Britse maatskappy wat in Suid-Afrika belê. / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Taxation / unrestricted

This diploma thesis focuses on the analysis of the effectiveness of transfer taxes in the period 2006 to 2010 in the Czech Republic. The first part of this thesis describes the historical development and the basic characteristics of transfer taxes in the Czech Republic and analyzes in details the current legislation. The second part deals with the analysis of the effectiveness of transfer taxes, i.e. measurement of the administrative costs of taxation and their subsequent comparison with revenues. The measurement of the administrative costs is used by the method called WTE staff. On the base of the measurement is done the conclusion about the administrative costs of taxation and about efficiency of transfer taxes in the tax system of the Czech Republic. The third part discusses on plans for future development in this area of transfer taxes in the Czech Republic.

The diploma thesis deals with the problem of measurement costs of taxation. The purpose of the thesis is to identify these costs and to calculate them in the selected company. Subsequently, partial measures leading to their optimization are proposed. Proposals are evaluated for their feasibility in practice.