Assignment (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: From 1954 to 1993 the Rooibos Control Board, a statutory one-channel marketing system, regulated the rooibos industry. In 1993 the industry was deregulated and competition between different role players in the industry emerged. In this study competitiveness is analysed from both a historical as well as a modem -day perspective. Modem economic theory defines that competition is good for all industry and that it leads to economic development. In the case of the rooibos industry, one could be inclined to think that the unique character of the product and the fact that the Control Board had established a marketing mechanism would limit competition and rivalry in the post -Control Board era. Inthis study it was determined that deregulation in this industry coincided with very intense price-driven rivalry in the export market whilst very little rivalry occurred in the domestic market. The information for this thesis was obtained from published Annual Reports of the Rooibos Control Board and from personal interviews with the main role players in the industry. Two strategies that could enhance the competitiveness of this industry are recommended: 1. Repositioning rooibos as a gourmet health tea. 2. Improving supply chain coordination within the industry. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verbetering van die Mededingendheid van die Rooibos Industrie Vanaf 1954 tot 1993 het die Rooibos Beheerraad, 'n statutêre enkelkanaal bemarkingsorganisasie, die rooibosindustrie gereguleer. In 1993 is die bedryf gedereguleer en kon mededinging tussen verskillende rolspelers plaasvind. In hierdie studie word mededinging uit beide 'n historiese sowel as moderne perspektiefbestudeer. Moderne ekonomiese teorie stel dit dat mededinging tot voordeel van alle industrieë is en dat dit lei tot ekonomiese ontwikkeling. In die geval van rooibos sou mens geneig wees om te dink dat die unieke karakter van die produk en die feit dat 'n bestaande bemarkingskanaal alreeds bestaan, mededinging sou beperk in die post-Beheerraad tydvak. In hierdie studie is bevind dat deregulering gepaard gegaan het met intense prys-gedrewe mededinging in die uitvoermark, terwyl die binnelandse mark bykans geen mededinging ervaar rue. Die inligting vir hierdie tesis is verkry uit gepubliseerde Jaarverslae van die Rooibos Beheerraad en deur persoonlike onderhoude wat gevoer is met rolspelers binne die bedryf Twee strategieë word voorgestel waarmee die bedryf meer mededingend gemaak kan word: 1. Produk herposisionering as 'n gourmet gesondheidstee. 2. Verbeterde koordinasie binne die voorsieningskettings.

Market demand for the fynbos-derived honeybush (Cyclopia spp.) tea is on the rise, and there is an urgent need for better conservation of wild Cyclopia populations and for a shift to sustainable cultivation. Rooibos is another popular fynbos product that underwent exponential market growth over the last two decades but this resulted in large-scale conversion of pristine mountain fynbos to intensively-used crop lands. Adopting a conservation agriculture approach in expanding indigenous products will help in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem processes in this global biodiversity hotspot. Conservation agriculture of indigenous fynbos products grown in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) should follow five main principles in order to maximise biodiversity conservation alongside agriculture. These principles are: 1) maintain high diversity at all levels, 2) conserve soil structure and processes, 3) conserve and restore natural ecosystem processes, 4) promote ecosystem stability and self-perpetuation, and 5) maintain natural areas as sources of ecosystem components. Given the negative ecological consequences of the industrialisation of the rooibos industry, it would be in the interest of biodiversity conservation, and even of agriculture, to apply these principles to honeybush cultivation. In order to prevent further fynbos habitat loss, cultivation of honeybush could be catalysed on old fields rather than in ploughed or cleared fynbos. Here I compare germination, growth and survival of two species (Cyclopia intermedia E.Mey. and C. subternata Vogel) between different land use types (ploughed lands, old fields and intact fynbos) and treatments (cleared and uncleared) in the Langkloof, Eastern Cape, over one year. Plots of each land use type were subject to each of these two treatments, although the ploughed plot constituted only a cleared treatment. Growth was highest on ploughed land, while survival and growth were lowest in uncleared fynbos. Cleared fynbos had the lowest germination success in both species, with the other sites and treatments coming out roughly the same. These results show that although ploughed lands give highest yields, growth and survival on old fields without ploughing is comparable with that on ploughed lands and is therefore a feasible alternative. Understanding the recruitment dynamics of honeybush is imperative for adequate conservation of wild populations. Furthermore, understanding this ecological aspect of the genus will help in developing the honeybush industry as a sustainable, agroecological market that uses semi-natural populations for production. Although Cyclopia species are early-successional species that germinate after fire, recruitment of Cyclopia pubescens Eckl. & Zeyh. continues throughout the inter-fire period. Cyclopia pubescens populations near Port Elizabeth were described according to their age structure and plant densities to discern possible density-dependent recruitment effects. Results showed that dense stands for the most part do not support high post-fire recruitment. This gives insight into suitable planting densities for new or restore populations and into management guidelines for remnant populations of threatened species. This thesis highlights important issues facing the honeybush industry. Mainstreaming biodiversity conservation into honeybush production is achievable, given that the industry is still relatively young, but this will require further research and strong market leadership.

Cyclopia intermedia E. Mey is harvested from the wild to produce honeybush tea. The presence of a lignotuber and its slow growth seems to hinder the cultivation of this species and wild harvesting is likely to continue. Species distribution modelling indicated that C. intermedia has a climate envelope that spans from the Eastern Cape to the Western Cape along the Cape Fold mountains. This regional distribution is threatened under future climate change scenarios with a range loss and shift identified for climate conditions predicted for 2050. More specifically, its niche was identified as south-facing slopes with sandy to loamy sand soils and water holding capacity that is higher than the surrounding areas. Some keystone Fynbos species were found to share this niche: Leucadendron salignum, Leucospermum cuneiforme, Protea neriifolia, Protea repens, Elegia filacea and Rhodocoma fruticosa. Cyclopia intermedia grows throughout the summer with flowering buds developing in autumn. These enlarge during winter with the flowers opening in early spring. Pods develop in November and seed set occurs during December. Harvesting plants increases their fecundity with cut plants producing more than twice the number of pods and seeds compared to their non-harvested counterparts. This is because resprouting plants produce more flowering stems than uncut plants. Controlled harvesting or localised short-cycle burning could be considered as a management option to improve fecundity of declining Cyclopia intermedia populations in protected areas. C. intermedia harvesting could occur every third year and stem colour was identified as a measure of harvest maturity. Where at least 30 percent of the population has orange (RHS colour 163A) stems the population is suitable for harvesting.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地域研究) / 甲第24255号 / 地博第308号 / 新制||地||119(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院アジア・アフリカ地域研究研究科グローバル地域研究専攻 / (主査)教授 河野 泰之, 教授 長岡 慎介, 教授 D'SOUZA Rohan Ignatious / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Area Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

The aim of this qualitative study is to explore the perspectives of current members of the cooperative regarding the role of social capital in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative on the Suid Bokkeveld in the Northern Cape, South Africa (SA). This cooperative has been cited by several researchers as being successful for various reasons, including the existence of a marketable resource, a steady increase in production, and certification through Fairtrade, resulting in an export market. Social capital, as a contributing factor to the success of the cooperative, has not however previously been investigated in depth. In light of the unique success of this cooperative, it is important to obtain an in-depth understanding of the role of social capital, if any, in its success, particularly in the formation and day-to-day operation of the cooperative. With a particular focus on the members’ perspectives of the cooperative, this qualitative research adopted a case study approach to explore and to gain multiple and subjective understanding of the role played by social capital in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative. This may assist the organisation under study, as well as similar initiatives, in strategically harnessing the benefits of social capital as a resource in future. This report has three interrelated sections. The first part is an academic paper, which includes a condensed literature review, research methods, results and discussions. The second part is an expanded literature review, while the third section details the research methods. It is vital to note that these sections are separate, but interrelated. Convenience sampling was used to identify current members of the cooperative who participated in this exploratory qualitative study. Four heterogeneous focus group discussions, with a total of 44 members of the Heiveld Cooperative in the Suid Bokkeveld, were conducted. The focus groups were heterogeneous, as they included ordinary members, founding members and committee members. A guideline with questions based on the theory of social capital was developed, and used to initiate or stimulate discussion among the members of the cooperative in order to address the key research question, namely: What was the role of social capital, if any, in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative in the Northern Cape as perceived by current cooperative members? The primary source of data was collected through focus group discussions, while secondary data was obtained from documents in a form of internal reports and papers written for the Heiveld Cooperative. Data was analysed using open coding and constant comparison techniques in order to induce emerging themes from the data. Findings of this study revealed that social capital played a major and influential role during the inception and also in the successful operation of the Heiveld Cooperative, by bonding and bridging not just between individual members, but also between communities, trading partners and other collaborators. Another key finding of this study is that social capital was also critical in enhancing supportive knowledge sharing, and the promotion of pride and shared identity, which the study identifies as aspects of cognitive social capital. Interestingly, the cognitive dimension of social capital in the Heiveld Cooperative has contributed to the weakening of social capital, as evident in claims related to lack of transparency and procedural injustice. Last, but not least, leveraging the sense of community has also been useful in promoting collective efficacy, strengthening familial togetherness, and enhanced democratisation of decision-making. Diminished trust, based on perceived oligarchy and nepotism is gradually weakening relational social capital. Findings in this study are illuminated using the social capital theory described by Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) to depict the social, cognitive and relational aspect of social capital that are at work at Heiveld Cooperative. Additionally, the social network theory by Hoppe and Reinelt (2010) is used to highlight the systemic view of social capital, which embraces the structural, relational and cognitive nature not only internal to but also between networks of the cooperative. Recommendations are provided to ensure social capital is harnessed, rather than undermined. These include the need to promote the processes of learning, monitoring and discussion that have been implemented; harnessing the benefits of bonding and bridging social capital; leveraging the sense of community and applying a more systemic view of social capital; and addressing perverse aspects of social capital such as nepotism and oligarchy that have been identified.

The tea industry in Kenya is among the main consumers of firewood for its intensive thermal energy demand. Along with the growing concerns about firewood depletion, tea factories have begun transitioning to alternative fuels to power their boilers. Briquettes made of biomass residues are among the promising solutions; however, they are not yet widely adopted. This study was conducted to identify the factors that motivate the tea factories to use biomass briquettes instead of firewood and the factors hindering such substitution. The substitution potential was assessed, and the drivers and barriers of the substitution were examined using a combination of SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis and a PESTEL (political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal) framework. The findings suggest that even though using biomass briquettes is technically possible, it is not economically favorable for tea factories. The SWOT/PESTEL analysis identified 27 factors influencing the substitution. Among the key drivers are the depleting supply of firewood, the availability of biomass residues, and the external support from development organizations to improve the technical capacity in both tea and briquette industries. The study revealed the barriers to substitution include the cost competitiveness, insufficient supply, and varying quality of briquettes, as well as the lack of awareness and knowledge of briquettes.

貓空製茶歷史悠久，獨特的鐵觀音茶為遠近馳名的地方特色產業，而貓空結合茶產業與休閒觀光產業的經營型態，長久以來塑造出今日貓空獨特的地方茶文化產業。本研究以貓空的茶文化產業為研究對象，並結合地方治理理論與回應性評估方法，目的在建構出貓空茶文化產業發展的治理架構，確認此架構中公部門、地方與非營利組織、茶農與茶產業經營者三方行動者的任務，並描述三方互動的動態治理機制，最後透過回應性評估的方式，對貓空茶文化產業治理機制進行評估。 　　本研究運用文獻分析法與深度訪談法，與貓空茶文化產業治理中三方行動者進行訪談，研究結果發現貓空當地茶農與茶產業經營者為發展的基礎，但隨著內外部不利因素的威脅，茶農與茶產業經營者面臨勞動力老化、氣候變遷、法令限制等問題；在地方與非營利組織方面，木柵區農會是治理機制運作中最重要的角色，主要任務是扮演水平與垂直溝通平台、提供茶農所需資源、辦理對產業發有所助益的優良鐵觀音茶比賽，另一方面貓空茶情社區發展協會是由地方自組而成的社區組織，目的在發展貓空社區與市政府方面的業務合作及協調，但在當地經營上也面臨些許問題；公部門方面，茶業改良場文山分場具茶葉專業知識，給予茶農在上游栽植方面許多幫助，而主管貓空發展的產業發展局則是退居二線進行產業輔導，工作內容為多元經營硬體與文化設施、定期撥列經費進行補助；在釐清各方行動者任務後，本研究整合茶產業與休閒觀光產業，建構出貓空茶文化產業治理的運作機制。在治理機制評估方面以「治理機制妥適性」、「參與者的輔導推廣能力」、「計畫目標達成度」三個指標進行評估，主要爭議點有四：(1)在於水土保持法令上一方面維持貓空茶區生態，一方面也限制了發展；(2)貓空纜車與當地茶產業發展關聯性不大；(3)產業發展局退居二線與當地茶農接觸較少，平行機關多且人員調動頻繁；(4)貓空茶文化產業面臨轉型困境。研究建議三點：(1)貓空茶文化產業的轉型與行銷；(2)茶比賽模式的推廣；(3)根留貓空當地人才。 / MaoKong cultural tea industry is a unique local industry of Taiwan. This study integrated Maokong cultural tea industry, local governance, and responsive evaluation theory, moreover the main purpose is to construct a governance framework of MaoKong cultural tea industry, and find out the task of those three operations in the framework: (1) governmental departments. (2) local and nonprofit organizations. (3) tea farmers and tea industry operators. 　　Additionally, literature analysis and depth interviews are the research methods of this study, through the interview with the actors of Maokong cultural tea industry , we found that: (1) local tea farmers and operators are the basis of tea industry, but they confront some inside and outside threats. (2) the most important role of the part of local and non-profit organization in Maokong tea industry governance, is the Muzha Farmers’ Association, which the main task is to establish a horizontal and vertical communication platform for the framework. The jobs of Muzha Community Development Association are to development this community, and collaboration and co-ordination with the Taipei city government, but also facing some issues with the local farmers. (3) In the public sector, first of all, Tea Research and Extension Station - Wenshan Substation with expertise provides lots of help in tea to the tea farmers. The Department of Economic Development, Taipei City Government in these days is to step aside for operating the hardware of cultural facilities, and providing subsidies to the tea industry operators. As well as this study suggestions are: (1) integrating all the resources of governance actors and using marketing methods to development Maokong cultural tea industry. (2) the promotion of Maokong tea competition mode. (3) root and reward local tea industry talents.