[Truncated abstract] Collective efficacy (CE) has been consistently shown to contribute to team performance by improving motivation, perseverance, group goals, and expectancy in teams (Bandura, 2000; Feltz & Lirgg, 2001). Having high confidence in one's team is proposed to increase the expectancy for success, thereby increasing motivation, persistence and effort, which in turn, increases overall performance (Bandura, 1997). A series of studies were conducted to examine predictors of self and collective efficacy in semi-professional soccer. In addition, within two of these studies, the effect of pivotal hypothetical injuries on players' and coaches' perceptions of CE were also examined. In the first and second studies, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was utilized in order to examine simultaneous player and team level predictors of efficacy perceptions. Data were obtained from semi-professional male soccer players (N = 139, mean age = 23, SD = 4.43 yrs) from nine teams in Western Australia. Participants completed the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ), the revised Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2) as well as measures of self-talk, self-efficacy (SE), and CE created for this study. HLM analyses indicated CE was significantly and positively associated with SE and significantly and negatively associated with perceptions of a performance-oriented motivational climate. Significant positive associations of SE were positive self-talk and average number of minutes played each game. Negative correlates of SE were a performance-oriented motivational climate and number of years played. The results illustrate the important cross-level influences of player and team level variables on SE and CE perceptions. Overall, the findings provide support for the propositions of the influence of sources of efficacy information and broaden the existing work on efficacy and motivational climate in sport. ... Future research on team processes following injury that may moderate the injury efficacy relationship may include, the effect of team leaders in an attempt to motivate the team and the verbal and non-verbal strategies of coaches. The present studies contribute to the existing body of knowledge concerning efficacy theory. Specifically, within this series of studies, individual and team level predictors of SE and CE among elite sport participants were examined. A performance-oriented motivational climate was negatively associated with CE perceptions, while players with elevated levels of SE had teams with elevated levels of CE. SE was positively associated with positive self-talk, and negatively correlated with a performance-oriented motivational climate. Further, the effects of player injury on CE perceptions also represent a valuable contribution to efficacy theory. Prior to the current studies, no researchers have studied the influence of athlete absence due to injury on CE.

Ma Man-sze = 香港中學女子籃球隊團隊凝聚力與教練訓練模式之研究 / 馬汶詩. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 92-116). / Text in English; abstracts in English and Chinese. / Ma Man-sze = Xianggang zhong xue nü zi lan qiu dui tuan dui ning ju li yu jiao lian xun lian mo shi zhi yan jiu / Ma Wenshi. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgement --- p.iii / List of Tables --- p.ix / List of Figures --- p.x / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- Introduction --- p.1 / Background --- p.1 / Purpose of the Study --- p.5 / Definition of Terms --- p.6 / Delimitations --- p.6 / Limitations --- p.6 / Significance of the Study --- p.7 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- Review of Literature --- p.8 / Different Definitions of Group --- p.8 / Sport and Exercise Group Dynamics Models --- p.10 / Group Cohesion in Sport Context --- p.12 / Relationship between Performance and Cohesion --- p.13 / Other Outcomes --- p.17 / Carroll's Conceptual Model --- p.18 / Situational Factors --- p.19 / Contractual Responsibilities --- p.19 / Size of Team --- p.20 / Personal Factors --- p.20 / Gender --- p.20 / Adherence Behavior --- p.21 / Team Factors --- p.21 / Group Norms --- p.21 / Collective Efficacy --- p.22 / Leadership Factors --- p.23 / Leadership Behavior --- p.23 / Decision Style --- p.23 / Leadership --- p.28 / Studies on Coaching Leadership in Sport --- p.29 / The Multidimensional Model of Leadership --- p.31 / Required Leader Behavior --- p.31 / Leader Behavior Preferred by the Athlete --- p.31 / Actual Leader Behavior --- p.31 / Performance and Satisfaction --- p.31 / Situational CharacteristicśؤCulture --- p.32 / Philosophical Background of Chinese Society --- p.34 / Propriety (Li) --- p.35 / Filial Piety (Xiao) --- p.35 / Importance of Family in Chinese Society --- p.36 / Cultural Difference between Western and Chinese Society --- p.37 / Individualism Vs Collectivism --- p.37 / Cross-Cultural Studies --- p.38 / Personality --- p.38 / Intergenerational Communication --- p.39 / Conflict-Handling Behavior --- p.40 / Communication Style --- p.41 / Business Organization --- p.42 / Leadership --- p.44 / Leader characteristicśؤGender --- p.46 / Gender Roles --- p.47 / Role Conflicts --- p.50 / Summary --- p.53 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- Method --- p.55 / Participants --- p.55 / Instrumentation --- p.55 / Demographic Information --- p.55 / Measuring Group Cohesion --- p.56 / Measuring Perceived and Preferred Coaching Behavior --- p.57 / Measuring Team Success --- p.59 / Procedures --- p.59 / Statistical Analysis --- p.60 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- Results --- p.61 / Preferred Coaching Behavior of Players' --- p.61 / Relationship of Coaching Behavior and Group Cohesion --- p.62 / Differences in Cohesion between Winning and Losing Teams Across Season --- p.64 / Gender Difference in the Perceived Behavior Across Season --- p.65 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- Discussion --- p.66 / Overall Preferred Coaching Behavior --- p.66 / Relationships between Perceived Coaching Behavior and Group Cohesion Across Season --- p.69 / Individual Attractions to Group-Task (ATG-T) --- p.69 / Individual Attractions to Group-Social (ATG-S) --- p.73 / Group Integration-Task (GI-T) --- p.75 / Group Integration-Social (GI-S) --- p.78 / Differences in Group Cohesion between Winning and Losing Teams Across Season --- p.80 / Gender Differences in Perceived Coaching Behavior Across Season --- p.84 / Summary and Conclusion --- p.87 / Limitations and Recommendations --- p.89 / References --- p.92 / Appendix A --- p.117 / Appendix B --- p.118 / Appendix C --- p.119 / Appendix D --- p.122 / Appendix E --- p.126 / Appendix F --- p.130 / Appendix G --- p.131 / Appendix H --- p.132 / Appendix I --- p.133 / Appendix J --- p.135 / Appendix K --- p.137

Youth sport is acknowledged as an ideal setting for promoting positive youth development. In particular, youth sport participation has been linked to life skills development and psychological well-being. The coaching climate has been proposed to play a role in facilitating such positive outcomes. Nonetheless, few measures exist to examine life skills development through sport and it is unclear how positive youth development may be facilitated by the coach. Using existing and newly developed measures, this thesis examined how the coaching climate is related to life skills development and psychological well-being in youth sport participants. Phase 1 of this programme of research investigated Benson and Saito’s (2001) conceptual framework for youth development theory and research within sport. Study 1 examined a model whereby the coaching climate is related to life skills development (personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting, and initiative); which, in turn, is related to participants’ psychological well-being (self-esteem, positive affect, and satisfaction with life). Data from 202 youth sport participants suggested that an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to all four life skills. Further analysis revealed that the development of personal and social skills mediated the relationships between coach autonomy support and all three indices of psychological well-being. However, the validity of the scale used to measure life skills was brought into question during this study. Therefore, the studies which follow developed and validated a new scale which could accurately assess eight key life skills young people learn through sport. Phase 2 of this programme of research involved developing and validating a scale which measures life skills development through sport. Study 2 outlines the initial development of a scale which would assess whether young people learn the following life skills through sport: teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving and decision making. This study involved defining each of the eight life skills, deciding what components made up each life skill and developing items which could assess each life skill. The initial item pool was reviewed by 39 academics, with between two and seven experts assessing the items for each of the eight life skills. Using the ratings and comments provided by experts, the first version of the Life Skills Scale for Sport (LSSS) was developed. Study 3 reduced the number of items contained within the LSSS from 144 to 47 items using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and descriptive statistics. For this task, 338 youth sport participants completed the LSSS. EFA results supported the unidimensional factor structure of each of the eight subscales. Each subscale also displayed adequate internal consistency reliability. Study 4 examined the factor structure of the LSSS using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with an independent sample of 223 youth sport participants. After the removal of four emotional skills items, seven of the eight subscales and the revised 43-item scale displayed adequate model fit. Results supported both the convergent and discriminant validity of the LSSS and each of the eight subscales displayed adequate internal consistency reliability. Study 5 assessed the test-retest reliability of the LSSS with an independent sample of 37 youth sport participants. Each participant completed the scale on two occasions which were two weeks apart. Results revealed that time 1 and time 2 scores were relatively unchanged over this two-week period, providing evidence of test-retest reliability. Phase 3 of this programme of research involved re-testing Benson and Saito’s (2001) framework. Study 6 retested the coaching climate – life skills development – psychological well-being model from Study 1 using the LSSS. Data from 326 youth sport participants suggested that an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to young people learning teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving and decision making. The total amount of life skills a young person developed through sport was positively related to their self-esteem, positive affect and satisfaction with life. Again, the factor structure and reliability of the scale was supported. The findings from this PhD research suggest that the coaching climate plays an important role in young peoples’ development through sport. Specifically, an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to life skills development and psychological well-being in youth sport participants. This thesis also provides researchers with a valid and reliable measure of life skills development through sport. Future research using the LSSS should examine other factors (e.g., peer relationships) which may promote positive youth development through sport. Additionally, future studies can use the LSSS to examine the efficacy of existing programmes (e.g., the SUPER programme) which teach life skills through sport. Such research will help guide coaches and sports programmes efforts to promote positive youth development through sport.