Thesis (D. Tech. (Biomed. Tech.)) -- Central University of Technology free State, 2010 / Consumer demands for fresh, microbiologically safe foods with high organoleptical and nutritional quality has led to the development of novel food preservation technologies as alternatives or enhancements to traditional preservation techniques. An example of these novel preservation technologies is high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing. It involves the applications of static pressure of 50 to 1 000 mega Pascals (MPa) to solid or packaged liquid foods, with varying holding times. The combination of factors to enhance preservation is increasingly being used in industry, e.g. the use of different temperatures and additives (hurdles) can enhance the preservative effect of HHP. In this study the influence of HHP on organism viability and growth response was assessed. The organisms evaluated included Escherichia coli O111, Listeria monocytogenes (UAFSBCC) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), in peptone water, which was subjected to HHP of 200 MPa for 15 minutes at 8 and 50 ºC respectively. Subsequent to the mentioned pressurisation, sub-culturing was performed and growth responses were evaluated at 0, 6, 18, 24, 30, 42 and 48 hours. Bacterial survival and growth response was measured by means of intact cell count, colony forming units and optical density. From the results it was eminent that bacterial cells were only sublethally injured and were able to repair within 48 hours of enriched sub-culturing. E. coli O111 proved to be most sensitive to HHP with Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) most resistant. This study also proved that bacterial concentration and inactivation rate are inversely proportionate to each other. Subsequent to growth and cell repair assessments, E. coli O111 was selected as a model to evaluate the effect of sublethal HHP on the liberation and toxicity of bacterial endotoxins (free and cell wall bound). It is also known that different extraction procedures extract different lipopolysaccharides (LPS) fractions and therefore LPS was extracted from the test broth by a combination method of Folch, Lees & Sloane-Stanley, and Venter and Ivanov. The extraction yielded a biphasic system, LPS with reduced lipid content in the upper phase (aqueous) and LPS with increased lipid content in the lower phase (organic). Following extraction the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test was performed to quantify the concentration (assumed) of LPS in the aqueous and organic phases. Free LPS was detected within six hours in the supernatant in the high and low bacterial loads, moreover the toxicity response of post HHP cell damage was more pronounced at 50 ºC (hurdle) than that observed for the treatments at 8 ºC (hurdle) and more so in the organic phases. The latter implied that HHP not only resulted in quantity LPS variation but also in structural change. However membrane repair was apparently complete after 48 hours, as differences in toxicity were no longer evident. Furthermore, the use of a porcine IL-6 ELISA assay was evaluated as an alternative for the customary LAL as a biomarker for pyrogenic substances in matrixes. Porcine whole blood was challenged for IL-6 production by LPS in the samples from the organic and aqueous systems. A porcine IL-6 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to assess IL-6 expression in whole blood after being challenged with LPS. From the results it emanated that HHP caused in a change in LPS structure which resulted in a decreased IL-6 expression in whole blood, indicating that structural adaptation of the cell membrane in response to HHP influenced the ability of LPS to stimulate macrophages and monocytes. Therefore, further research and development would be required to evaluate the influence of post HHP LPS on human IL-6 expression. When comparing the porcine IL-6 with the LAL no correlation in toxicity could be established in any of the treatment parameters. Finally it can be concluded that HHP had an influence in the structural morphology of LPS. These structural changes could result in LPS being more toxic, it could also have an effect on the accuracy of immunological assessments, the ability to form biofilm, and susceptibility to phages.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Biomed. Tech.)) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2010 / The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned in 2005 that: “Coronary heart disease is now one of the leading causes of death worldwide. It is on the rise and has become a true pandemic that respects no borders” (WHO, 2005). The Heart and Stroke Foundation of South Africa more specifically estimates that approximately 33 (thirty‐three) people per day will die of a heart attack in South Africa. Despite the already high death toll resulting from AIDS in South Africa, death from a chronic disease, also including heart disease, will increase from 565 deaths per day in the year 2000, to 666 deaths per day by 2010 (Steyn, 2007). Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is an ‘umbrella term’ describing a heterogeneous spectrum of clinical symptoms compatible with acute myocardial ischaemia (Monaco, Mathur, Martin, 2005; ACC/AHA, 2007) and an ongoing inflammatory process resulting from atherosclerosis. ACS can either be treated medically (pharmacological treatment), by percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), or by performing coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery either through on‐pump or offpump CABG surgery. By treating the ACS patient by means of CABG surgery, an inflammatory response is further triggered on top of the already existing inflammation resulting from atherosclerosis. This leads to a systemic inflammatory response (SIR), which may eventually lead to systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). This study focuses on the inflammatory response initiated by the CABG technique applied during the revascularisation of the ACS patient. Many past studies compared on‐pump and off‐pump CABG surgery, arguing not only the advantages and disadvantages of these surgeries, but also the outcomes regarding SIRS. Both types of surgery are associated with an inflammatory response resulting from tissue trauma and the use of the extracorporeal circulation (EC) in CABG surgery (Quaniers, Leruth, Albert, Limet, Defraigne, 2006). This non‐randomised, observational study primarily aimed to assess and compare the pre‐ and the post‐operative inflammatory markers between (n=60) patients with ACS undergoing either on‐pump CABG (n=30) or off‐pump CABG surgery (n=30). A secondary objective was to ascertain whether a correlation exists between the pre‐operative risk factors, the surgical procedure and the pre‐ and post‐operative inflammatory markers. Three inflammatory markers ‐ full blood count (FBC), procalcitonin (PCT) and C‐reactive protein (CRP) ‐ were analysed employing normal routine laboratory analysis. Interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF‐α) were analysed using an enzyme amplified sensitivity immunoassay (EASI) method. The inflammatory markers were analysed pre‐operatively (baseline) and post‐operatively and at different time intervals (24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours post‐operatively). Pre‐operatively, all the leucocytes were already elevated in both CABG groups, as could be expected in patients with ACS resulting from the already existing atherosclerotic process and the consequent pre‐operative existing inflammatory response. A significant pre‐operative difference was moreover detected in respect of the lymphocytes between the two CABG groups (p=0.03024). A significant post‐operative difference was also detected between the two CABG groups. The following significantly elevated levels were detected in the on‐pump CABG surgical group: for WCC at 24 hours (p=0.00761), 48 hours (p=0.01520) and 72 hours (p=0.00004); for neutrophils at 24 hours (p=0.17422), 96 hours (p=0.18611) and 120 hours (p=0.12872); for lymphocytes at 48 hours (p=0.04829) and at 96 hours (p=0.01982); and, for PCT at 24 hours (p=0.00811), 48 hours (p=0.00966) and 72 hours (p=0.01823) . However, measurable values of IL‐6 levels were found to be higher in the off‐pump CABG surgical group, with significant differences manifesting between the two CABG groups at 96 hours (p=0.05352) and 120 hours (p=0.09729). No differences between the two groups could be demonstrated for eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, CRP and TNF‐α. In conclusion: despite the demonstrable inflammatory responses in both CABG groups, no difference in clinical outcomes was observed. The inflammatory responses evoked by on‐pump and off‐pump CABG procedures will, for some time to come, remain an area of interest for future research, but they are certainly not the only factors to have a bearing on surgical outcomes. The impact of intraoperative events needs to be elucidated further ‐ and in more detail ‐ in order to attempt to determine the relationship of these events on the extent of inflammatory responses and clinical outcomes, irrespective of whether the procedure is performed with or without cardiopulmonary bypass.

Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2010 / This main aim of this study was to assess patients in a general cardiology practice in order to determine the systolic and diastolic profiles of these patients. The aim was also to determine what effect life style and risk factors may have on the echocardiographic variables measured during such an examination. The specific aim of this study was the importance of not only examining the systolic function but the necessity to also examine the diastolic profile of patients. Life-style plays an important role, with the main culprit being obesity. Obesity was the single most important factor that affected the diastolic profile of patients seen in this study. With obesity a combination of other risk factors related to obesity was observed. Most abnormalities found due to these risk factors were associated with diastolic changes in the left ventricle. Echocardiography is routinely used in daily practice, but the diagnostic value of this tool can be enhanced if proper analyses of the systolic as well as the diastolic profiles are determined. Many cardiologists only measure the systolic function of the heart as an indication of the well- being of the left ventricle, although in this study it was proven that systolic function did not alter with ageing or with changes in the risk profile. Hundred-and-twelve patients, divided into three age groups, were evaluated in this study. Both systolic and diastolic variables were measured and analysed for abnormalities. None of these patients had systolic function abnormalities, although they had detectable anatomic changes due to ageing, obesity and hypertension. Several abnormalities were found on the diastolic profile of these patients. Muscle thickness increased due to obesity and hypertension and even with ageing, but with no significant abnormalities in the systolic function of the heart. There was a slight increase in the circumferential shortening of the left ventricle and that both the septal and longitudinal functions decreased with ageing. It is noteworthy that even where the systolic function remained normal in ageing subjects, their diastolic profiles changed significantly. Assessment of left ventricular function required a meticulous and systematic approach. In this study forty- one percent of patients visiting this general practice had abnormalities of their diastolic function although their systolic function was normal. It was found that with ageing, especially in the older age group, important abnormalities occur in their diastolic profile. The most common changes were that the E- peak velocity decreased and that the Apeak velocity of the trans-mitral flow increased. It seemed that passive filling decreased with ageing but that active filling increased simultaneously, causing the cardiac output to remain constant in older subjects. This is important to know because diseases affecting the atrium may have a profound effect on the cardiac output of older patients, even if they have normal systolic function, (due to the decreased passive filling they need their active filling or atrial contraction to support a normal cardiac output). An important marker will be to look at the ratio of the E/A- velocities in older patients to determine the ratio of active against passive filling. Other than that, a relatively new tool in echocardiography called tissue Doppler was used to determine what happened to the muscle with ageing. Here it was demonstrated that the different layers of the left ventricle acted differently with ageing. Results showed that the longitudinal fibres weakened with ageing although the circumferential fibres remained unchanged or even strengthened with ageing. It was apparent in this study that the traditional use of only systolic function may not be adequate when evaluating relative asymptomatic patients presenting at a general cardiology practice. It is important to also evaluate the diastolic profiles of these patients in order to scientifically quantify their heart health, even in asymptomatic patients. It is important to routinely evaluate the diastolic profile of patients so that early detection of these diastolic variables can be detected and timely consideration for its treatment can be given by their cardiologist. It is also important to take note of the significance of the obesity problem and the effect it has on the heart’s health. In conclusion, this study emphasizes the importance of the echocardiographic evaluation of diastolic cardiac function in addition to routine systolic evaluation in asymptomatic patients. This will enable the clinician to detect abnormalities early and tailor therapy accordingly. Lifestyle related risk factors, especially obesity, also have significant effects on diastolic cardiac function.

Thesis (M. Tech.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2010 / Early detection of mother-to-child transfer of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) is of the utmost importance for monitoring the success of intervention strategies, as well as for optimal treatment of HIV-positive children. Serology can only be used confidently after 18 months, as remaining antibodies from the mother may give false positive results. This leaves only molecular methods for early detection of the virus; unfortunately, the technology is still too expensive for general use. The aim of this project was to develop and validate a cost-effective, fast, early detection method for HIV infection in infants. PCR was chosen as the developmental method, a technique that amplifies proviral sequences of HIV DNA, detecting HIV infection in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from infants of seropositive women during neonatal (age less than 28 days) and post-neonatal periods. A method based on the commercial Roche HIV-1 DNA assay was chosen for implementation on the Roche LightCycler instrument. The published primer set was used to detect both HIV-1 DNA and an internal control. The target DNA for use as internal control was constructed from the plasmid pBR322 so that an AT-rich part of the plasmid was flanked by the HIV-1 primer-binding sites. The resulting amplicon was cloned into a vector and multiplied in E. coli. Amplification of the plasmid by PCR in the Roche LightCycler in the presence of SYBR Green created an amplicon having a Tm different (81 ± 1°C ) from that of the HIV-1 amplicon (84 ± 1°C) so that post-amplification melting can be used to differentiate between HIV-1 and internal control. After construction of the internal control, the reaction conditions were optimised so that the internal control would amplify strongly only in the absence of HIV-1 target DNA. Then 50 previously tested patient samples were analysed using the assay developed here. Only half of the known positive samples came up positive in the assay, indicating that it is not sensitive enough for diagnostic use in its current form. Various ways of improving the sensitivity are suggested for further development of the assay as described here.

Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2010 / This study evaluated the effects of two bacterial inoculants on the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of ensiled potato hash (PH) and on digestibility, growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing pigs fed the ensiled PH. In the first experiment, 700 grams of PH, was mixed with 300g wheat bran (as is basis) and ensiled in 1.5 litre anaerobic jars. The mixture had a dry matter (DM) of 41.3 g/kg, 78.05 g/kg DM of water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and a pH of 6.87 at day 0 and was treated with Bonsilage forte, BF, a heterofermentative LAB, Lalsil Fresh lactobacillus bachneri, LFLB, a homofermentative LAB or without LAB inoculant (control). Triplicate samples per treatment were collected on days 0, 3, 10, 21 and 45 post-ensiling and analysed for DM, WSC, pH, lactic acid (LA), acetic acid (AA), butyric acid (BA), propionic acid (PA) and ammonia-N. On day 45, the silage was subjected to aerobic exposure for 5 days and CO2 production was measured. In the second and third experiments, potato hash-wheat bran mixtures of 7:3 ratio were produced and ensiled in 210 litre drums that were kept at a 250C environment. The second experiment involved an apparent nutrients digestibility study using 30 female (Large White x Landrace crossbred) pigs (30 2 kg live weight), which were selected and housed individually. A cross-over design was applied with two periods and 30 animals fed 10 diets. Three pigs were given one diet per period. The diets were: commercial feed (control); 20, 40, and 60% dietary inclusion of potato hash silage (untreated potato hash silage, UPHS; Lalsil Fresh treated potato hash silage, LFLBPHS, and Bonsilage forte treated potato hash silage, BFPHS). Each experimental period lasted for eleven days with seven days being for adaptation to each diet and four days for collection of faeces before crossing over to the next treatment. Pigs were fed twice per day at 8:00 and 15:00, with the daily allowance equally divided between the two meals. Faecal samples were weighed and 10% of the total collection was taken and kept in a freezer at -180C. Prior to chemical analysis, individual samples of faeces were thawed and pooled for pigs within periods. Water was made available at all times through drinking nipples. The third experiment was a pig growth study using sixty-four crossbred pigs (Large White x Landrace) consisting of 32 males and 32 females (30.4±2.3kg live weight). The pigs were randomly allocated to four diets in a 4 x 2 (treatment x sex) factorial experiment in a completely randomised design. The diets contained up to 40% potato hash silage (PHS) and were: control (commercial diet - no silage), UPHS, BFPHS and LFLBPHS. Each experimental unit consisted of two pigs and each treatment was replicated 8 times. Pigs were fed on one of the four diets until they reached a slaughtering weight of 60 kg. Warm carcass weights were determined immediately after slaughter. After an overnight chill storage at 4.30C, cold carcass weights were determined. Carcass length was taken on hanging carcasses by measuring from the pelvic bone to the first thoracic vertebra, using a measuring tape. Backfat thickness was also taken on cold carcass at P2 (45 mm from midsection) between the 3rd and 4th rib on the left side of the pigs. Drip loss was also calculated for hanging carcasses by determining the weight loss after the overnight chill. Results from experiment 1 showed that both inoculants (LFLB and BF) reduced (P<0.05) the silage pH while increasing the LA content of silage compared to the control. The concentrations of propionic acid, butyric acid and ammonia-N were not affected by inoculation. When exposed to air, BF and LFLB reduced (P<0.05) CO2 production compared to the control. Results of the second experiment showed that daily intakes of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre(NDF), and gross energy (GE) were different (P<0.05) between diets. There were no differences (P<0.05) in digestibility of DM, EE, and DE among the treatments. However, diets containing 60% PHS had lower (P<0.05) NDF and ADF digestibility compared to diets containing less PHS. Furthermore, pigs on the control diet had higher (P<0.05) final body weight, average daily gain (ADG) and better feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to those fed on other diets. Results of the third experiment showed that, pigs that were fed the control diet had higher (P<0.05) slaughter weight than pigs that were fed on diets containing PHS. There were no differences (P>0.05) on warm and carcass weight between diets containing PHS. Control had higher (P<0.05) dressing percentage than the other treatments. Drip loss percentage, backfat thickness, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), lungs and heart did not differ (P<0.05) between treatments. The effects of gender was not significant within treatments on slaughter weight, warm and cold carcass weights, dressing percentage, carcass length, backfat thickness, drip loss, GIT, lungs and heart. There were no gender by diet interactions (P>0.05) on warm carcass weights, cold carcass weights, drip loss percentage, carcass length, backfat, intergastral, lungs and heart. However, gender by diet interaction (P<0.05) occured on slaughter weight and dressing percentage. It was concluded that, inoculation improved both the fermentation and aerobic stability of PHS. Furthermore, there was no advantage in using LAB inoculants in ensiling potato hash on the growth performance or meat characteristics of growing pigs. However, further work is needed to evaluate the effects of higher dietary inclusion levels (> 60 %) of PHS on pig growth and reproductive performance.

Thesis (M. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / Microbial pathogens play an important role in the food industry where they could cause disease and subsequently significant economic losses. Limited information is available on the situation with regard to Listeria in food products in South Africa. However, much research is being done in the rest of the world on Listeria indicating serious problems as a result of resistance development against various antimicrobial agents, including the organic acids. It is hypothesised that the situation with regard to resistance development may be more serious than generally admitted. Isolation of 200 different food samples was done by using a slightly modified EN ISO 11290-1/A1:2004 standard method. Identification of presumptive positive colonies was confirmed as Listeria by API (Analytical profile index) Listeria. API positive cultures were subjected to 16S rDNA sequencing to compare and confirm identification. Isolates and standard strains were screened for resistance to food preservatives such as organic acids and antibiotics used in the current treatment regime for Listeria infections. The organisms evaluated included isolated strains namely Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria innocua and their corresponding ATCC (American type culture colletion) strains. An agar dilution method as described by the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 11 antibiotics and 13 organic acids and salts for all the isolates. Overall antibiotic susceptibility patterns of all the isolates indicated high level susceptibility to all the antibiotics tested. Susceptibility to all the organic acids was notably reduced at pH 7 in all the isolates and control strains. Eight highly susceptible strains were selected for induction and represented each of the species isolated. These isolates were exposed to increasing concentrations of three antibiotics and three organic acids. MICs were again determined for all the induced strains for five antibiotics and three organic acids. Proteins extracted from the induced strains were separated on discontinuous SDS-PAGE slab gels to generate total protein profiles. Notable variations were observed in MICs, although induction with antibiotics as well as organic acids did not result in general resistance development. However, evidence was provided that continuous exposure to antimicrobial agents may cause Listeria spp. to develop resistance to different antimicrobial agents. Further research and in depth studies on mechanisms involved in the development of resistance to food preservatives would, therefore, be required. Finally, it is concluded that Listeria monocytogenes may be a possible threat in the Central South African food industry, which deserves more attention. The situation may actually pose a problem that is overseen, because only a small percentage of people that get sick from food, would seek medical advice.

Thesis (M. Ed.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2011 / Financial management is fundamental to the improvement of the efficient and effective use of finances in schools. If principals and SGB chairpersons are well trained on their roles and responsibilities regarding financial management, they will be able to effectively deal with financial matters of schools. Financial management is an integral part of efficient and effective financial management in schools. This study provides a literature discussion on funding provided to schools by the government, as well as the essences of financial management in the school setting. The study also sought to scrutinize the impact of related Acts and policies on financial management in schools. The fieldwork sought to determine the extent of possible problems that schools experience regarding financial management and aimed at providing possible solutions for efficient and effective financial management in schools. Principals and SGBs chairpersons made up the sample of this study. Questionnaires were used to determine the views and opinions of these participants regarding the efficiency and effectiveness of financial management in their schools. The data gathered through the open-ended questionnaires were analysed and reported on qualitatively. The key findings were that principals and the SGBs chairpersons wish to play an important role in financial management in schools, but lack financial management skills to do so. The lack of financial management skills was more evident on the side of the SGB chairpersons. The result of this lack of financial management skills has the effect that other types of financial problems arise at schools.

Thesis (M. Tech. Agriculture) -- Central University of Technology, Free state, 2012 / A series of incubation studies and greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the use of EM seed treatments, at different application levels, handling techniques and soil conditions on germination and seedling vigour of selected cultivars of maize, sorghum and sunflower. Two incubation studies were conducted to evaluate the germination and seedling vigour of maize, sorghum and sunflower seeds treated with M-EM from three different suppliers, multiplied at two different ratios (1% and 3%) and diluted at three different levels (0.01%, 0.1% and 1.0%) compared to a control treated with pure water. Results revealed no significant differences under optimum germination conditions, while seedlings under cold stress indicated that M-EM treatments positively affected germination and seedling vigour compared to the control treatments. Two incubation studies were also conducted to evaluate the germination and seedling vigour of maize, sorghum and sunflower seeds treated with M-EM from three different suppliers, multiplied at two different ratios (1% and 3%) and exposed to the influences of irradiation and temperature fluctuation. From the results became clear that the correct storage and handling is essential in optimizing the effect of M-EM on seeds. Even though M-EM was exposed to irradiation and temperature fluctuation, M-EM still had positive effects on germination and seedling vigour. Pot experiments were conducted to determine the effect of EM as seed treatment, at different dilutions, on germination, seedling vigour and dry mass of maize, sorghum and sunflower at different planted depths. Germination were not affected by the M-EM treatment, while shoot length results indicated that seed treated with M-EM could have significant effect on seedling survival. A greater effect was visible on the shoot length of shallow planted seeds, than on deeper planted seeds. From the results no single company, ratio or dilution could be prescribed as paramount. To further investigate the effect of M-EM subjected to the influences of irradiation and temperature fluctuation; maize, sorghum and sunflower seeds were treated with M-EM from three different suppliers, multiplied at two different ratios (1% and 3%) and exposed to the influences of irradiation and temperature fluctuation and planted in soil. M-EM treatments only benefited the germination of deeper planted sorghum seeds compared to the control treatments. The shoot lengths of deeper planted maize and sunflower seed were positively increased by the M-EM treatments while also resulting in significant results for the overall shoot length of sorghum. The third pot study was conducted to determine the influence of EM as a seed treatment on maize, sorghum and sunflower planted in three different soils, namely: sterilized soil, soil treated with M-EM and Fusarium containing soil. Germination and seedling vigour results of the sterilized and M-EM treated soil revealed to be superior to that of the Fusarium containing soil. From the results was concluded that M-EM treatments will probably improve early seedling growth of maize, sorghum and sunflower compared to untreated seed and that M-EM seed treatment and a pre-plant EM soil treatment might assist seeds in unfavourable germination and growth conditions.

Thesis (M. Tech. Environmental health) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2011 / Millions of people in South Africa eat out every day, utilising the food service sector. Although the lack of an effective reporting system makes it difficult to know how many of these people suffer from food-borne illness, statistics from the developed countries show that this number may be significant. There is, therefore, the need to ensure that the food service sector, which encompasses fast food outlets, hotels and similar accommodation outlets offering food and beverage services, restaurants, caterers, etc., implement effective food safety management systems. Internationally, the trend has been that food safety management systems should be based on the internationally accepted Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles. In South Africa, the implementation of HACCP as a food safety management system has been driven by international trade requirements where foods are exported to countries such as the European Union or the United States of America. A national regulation requiring HACCP implementation was promulgated in 2003, but compliance is not yet required for the food service sector. Currently, neither of the above mentioned factors put adequate pressure on the food service sector to implement formal food safety management systems. However, increasing international tourism and the hosting of international sporting events has brought this sector under scrutiny. Food handlers have been implicated in many outbreaks of food-borne illness and much research has been done to investigate causal factors in this regard. Food handler training has been proposed as a strategy to improve food safety practices. However, research has shown that the traditional provision of food safety and food hygiene knowledge does not equate to improved food safety behaviours. Some authors postulate that the organisational context, created largely by the management of an organisation, is of greater significance than training. Less research is available on these management factors – defined as the situational factors when discussing organisational culture, or defined as enabling and reinforcing factors when discussing food handler behaviour. This study commenced with the hypothesis that food handlers are not able to implement the correct food safety behaviours in the absence of sufficient management support. This support would require appropriate policies regarding food safety, the provision of training and infrastructure and enforcing the correct behaviours by line management, as a minimum. The aim of this study was to investigate and assess the role of line management in relation to food safety at a prominent South African entertainment facility. In order to achieve this, the following objectives were defined for the study: to conduct a qualitative assessment of the role of management in food safety, to assess the role of management in the provision of food safety training and to assess the role of management in the provision of a basic hygiene infrastructure at the study site in order to allow food handlers to carry out the correct behaviours. The objective of conducting a qualitative study of management practices, policies and resource provision with respect to food safety revealed that there was no formal evidence of management commitment to food safety other than the recent provision of food handler training. The findings also indicated a lack of a formal management system for food safety at the study site. In the exploratory survey of food safety training and knowledge, results showed that only 60 % of staff in the survey had received training. This indicates that at the time of the survey, the study site did not fully comply with the minimum legal requirements for food handler training. The results of the employee survey further indicated that employees were aware of the importance of hand washing although it was not possible to determine whether this knowledge was as a result of the training intervention or prior knowledge. Many of the supervisors were not yet trained in food safety and the impact of the food safety training intervention on related behaviours at the site will require further in-depth assessment. Upon investigating the food hygiene infrastructure provided at the study site to allow food handlers to carry out the correct behaviours, findings indicated that although the personnel hygiene programme addressed most of best practice requirements in design, the implementation of the hand washing requirements was not aligned with accepted norms due to the lack of sufficient hand wash basins. The provision of facilities such as sufficient and conveniently located hand wash basins is a management function and findings suggest that, as a priority, management should ensure that they are not contributing to the lack of implementation of the correct food safety behaviours of food handlers as a result of failing to provide the necessary resources. The results of this study should be of value in the food service sector, specifically hotel kitchens, as a guideline to ensure that management plays an effective role in facilitating food safety management systems. A robust food safety and food hygiene training programme for all levels of the organisation is essential in ensuring adequate knowledge of food safety hazards and correct practices. Training should be supported by daily supervision of food safety controls, management commitment and a work environment that supports the implementation of the correct behaviours. Literature has shown that undesirable practices are often deeply rooted in kitchen culture. It has further been commented that culture changes require a top-down approach which usually involves working with the leadership of the organisation. Important policies and procedures generally originate from the management tiers and will always require the concurrence of management in providing resources, altering priorities or otherwise changing how things are done in the organisation. The results of this study are invaluable in highlighting areas in an organisation that could be targeted to change the kitchen culture. Such changes are primarily the responsibility of management. Ultimately, this study endeavours to contribute to the body of knowledge pointing to the role of social-behavioural aspects in ensuring food safety and thereby consumer well-being.

Thesis (M. Tech. Agriculture) -- Central University of Technology, Free state, 2012 / The eight-week study was conducted to evaluate the effects of rearing system (indoor vs. outdoor) and energy level on digestibility, growth performance and on the carcass characteristics and visceral organs of pigs. A total of 48 Large Whites (LW) X Landrace (LR) male grower pigs were randomly selected at average weights of 27 ± 4.6.kg and divided into two equal groups that were either raised indoors or outdoors. Within each rearing system, half the pigs were fed on a diet formulated to contain either a normal energy level (14 MJ DE/kg) or high energy level (16.1 MJ DE/kg) resulting in a 2 X 2 factorial design. The pigs were fed ad libitum and water was freely available. Pigs were housed in pairs and each indoor and outdoor pig was offered a space allowance of 0.51 and 13.5 m2 respectively. Indoor pigs were raised in a temperature controlled house consisting of a concrete floor pen while outdoor pigs were on a pasture that predominantly consisted of Kikuyu. Movable gates were used to construct outdoor camps and empty feed bags were used to construct a shade for use as shelter. Faecal collection for digestibility determination took place during week 7 while the growth performance trial was still in progress. Chromium oxide was used to evaluate digestibility and faeces were grabbed before they fell to the ground and sampled. With the exception of ether extracts (EE), the digestibilities of crude protein (CP), digestible energy (DE), crude fibre (CF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and organic matter (OM) were reduced (P <0.05) by rearing pigs outdoors. EE followed the same trend. Feeding the high energy (HE) diet significantly (P >0.05) improved the digestibilities of all the nutrients except for CP. There were no significant interactions (P>0.05) between rearing system and diet for the digestibility of nutrients. Daily gains were similar (P >0.05) between indoor and outdoor pigs. Daily feed intakes and conversions were significantly (P <0.05) lower in indoor pigs. There were no significant (P >0.05) differences between the daily gains and feed conversions of pigs fed either the normal energy (NE) or the HE diet. Indoor pigs fed the HE diet had lower (P < 0.05) feed intakes compared to pigs on the other treatments. In general, average daily feed intakes (ADFI) of the HE fed pigs were significantly (P <0.05) lower than those of the NE fed pigs. The carcass measurements of the indoor and outdoor pigs were similar. The gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) and the liver weights of the outdoor reared pigs were significantly (P <0.05) heavier than those of the indoor reared pigs. Feeding the HE diet led to significantly (P <0.05) higher carcass weights and dressing percentages. Interactive effects (P <0.05) of diet and rearing system were found for lean meat percentage (Lean P) and eye muscle area (EMA). Indoor pigs fed on the NE diet had higher Lean P and EMA while an opposite effect was obtained in the outdoor system. The liver of the NE diet fed pigs was significantly (P < 0.05) heavier than that of the pigs fed the HE diet. It can be concluded that with regard to growth performance and carcass characteristics, the NE and HE diets are respectively best suited for the indoor and outdoor rearing of pigs.