Abstract: When noble metals particles are synthesized with progressively smaller dimensions, strikingly novel optical properties arise. For nanoscale particles, collective disturbances of the electron density known as localized surface plasmons resonances can arise, and these resonances are utilized in a variety of applications ranging from surface-enhanced molecular spectroscopy and sensing to photothermal cancer therapy to plasmon-driven photochemistry. Central to all of these studies is the plasmon’s remarkable ability to process light, capturing and converting it into intense near fields, heat, and even energetic carriers at the nanoscale. In the past decade, we have witnessed major advances in plasmonics which is directly linked with the much broader field of (colloidal) nanotechnology. These breakthroughs span from plasmon lasing and waveguides, plasmonic photochemistry and solar cells to active plasmonics, plasmonics nanocomposites and semiconductor plasmons. All the above-mentioned phenomena rely on precise spatial placement and distinct control over the dimensions and orientation of the individual plasmonic building blocks within complex one-, two- or three-dimensional complex arrangements. For the nanofabrication of metal nanostructures at surfaces, most often lithographic approaches, e.g. e-beam lithography or ion-beam milling are generally applied, due to their versatility and precision. However, these techniques come along with several drawbacks such as limited scalability, limited resolution, limited compatibility with silicon manufacturing techniques, damping effects due to the polycrystalline nature of the metal nanostructures and low sample throughput. Thus, there is a great demand for alternative approaches for the fabrication of metal nanostructures to overcome the above-mentioned limitations. But why colloids? True three-dimensionality, lower damping, high quality modes due to mono-dispersity, and the absence of grain boundaries make the colloidal assembly an especially competitive method for high quality large-scale fabrication. On top of that, colloids provide a versatile platform in terms of size, shape, composition and surface modification and dispersion media. 540The combination of directed self-assembly and laser interference lithography is a versatile admixture of bottom-up and top-down approaches that represents a compelling alternative to commonly used nanofabrication methods. The objective of this thesis is to focus on large area fabrication of emergent spectroscopic properties with high structural and optical quality via colloidal self-assembly. We focus on synergy between optical and plasmonic effects such as: (i) coupling between localized surface plasmon resonance and Bragg diffraction leading to surface lattice resonance; (ii) strong light matter interaction between guided mode resonance and collective plasmonic chain modes leading to hybrid guided plasmon modes, which can further be used to boost the hot-electron efficiency in a semiconducting material; (iii) similarly, bilayer nanoparticle chains leading to chiro-optical effects. Following this scope, this thesis introduces a real-time tuning of such exclusive plasmonic-photonic (hybrid) modes via flexible template fabrication. Mechanical stimuli such as tensile strain facilitate the dynamic tuning of surface lattice resonance and chiro-optical effects respectively. This expands the scope to curb the rigidity in optical systems and ease the integration of such systems with flexible electronics or circuits.:Contents Abstract Kurzfassung Abbreviations 1. Introduction and scope of the thesis 1.1. Introduction 1.1.1. Classical optics concepts 1.1.2. Top down fabrication methods and their challenges 1.1.3. Template-assisted self-assembly 1.1.4. Functional colloidal surface assemblies 1.2. Scope of the thesis 2. Results and Discussion 2.1. Mechanotunable Surface Lattice Resonances in the Visible Optical Range by Soft Lithography Templates and Directed Self-Assembly 2.1.1. Fabrication of flexible 2D plasmonic lattice 2.1.2. Investigation of the influence of particle size distribution on SLR quality 2.1.3. Band diagram analysis of 2D plasmonic lattice 2.1.4. Strain induced tuning of SLR 2.1.5. SEM and force transfer analysis in 2D plasmonic lattice under various strain 2.2. Hybridized Guided-Mode Resonances via Colloidal Plasmonic Self-Assembled Grating 2.2.1. Fabrication of hybrid opto-plasmonic structure via template assisted self-assembly 2.2.2. Comparison of optical band diagram of three (plasmonic, photonic and hybrid) different structures in TE and TM modes 2.2.3. Simulative comparison of optical properties of hybrid opto-plasmonic NP chains with a grating of metallic gold bars 2.2.4. Effect of cover index variation with water as a cover medium 2.3. Hot electron generation via guided hybrid modes 2.3.1. Fabrication of the hybrid GMR structure via LIL and lift-off process 2.3.2. Spectroscopic and simulative analysis of hybrid opto-plasmonic structures of different periodicities 2.3.3. Comparative study of photocurrent generation in different plasmonic structures 2.3.4. Polarization dependent response at higher wavelength 2.3.5. Directed self-assembly of gold nanoparticles within grating channels of a dielectric GMR structure supported by titanium dioxide film 2.4. Active Chiral Plasmonics Based on Geometrical Reconfiguration 2.4.1. Chiral 3D assemblies by macroscopic stacking of achiral chain substrates 3. Conclusion 4. Zusammenfassung 5. Bibliography 6. Appendix 6.1. laser interference lithography 6.2. Soft molding 6.3. Determine fill factor of plasmonic lattice 6.4. 2D plasmonic lattice of Au_BSA under strain 6.5. Characterizing order inside a 2D lattice 6.6. Template-assisted colloidal self-assembly 6.7. Out of plane lattice resonance in 1D and 2D lattices 6.8. E-Field distribution at out of plane SLR mode for 1D lattices of various periodicity with AOI 20° 6.9. Refractive index of PDMS and UV-PDMS 6.10. Refractive index measurement for sensing 6.11. Optical constants of TiO2, ma-N 405 photoresist and glass substrate measured from spectroscopic ellipsometry Acknowledgement/ Danksagung Erklärung & Versicherung List of Publications

Os desafios atuais no desenvolvimento de biossensores abrangem diversos aspectos, tais como a necessidade de se aperfeiçoar a interface de contato entre o substrato e o material biológico, a eficiência de transdução do sinal químico em um sinal mensurável, o tempo de resposta, a compatibilidade dos biossensores com matrizes biológicas e a integração de diferentes elementos de reconhecimento biológico em um único dispositivo, visando a detecção de distintos analitos. Nesse contexto, o desenvolvimento da nanociência tem criado recursos bastante atraentes para otimizar os aspectos descritos acima. O presente trabalho apresenta, portanto, estudos realizados para a construção de mediadores nanoestruturados que possam operar de maneira mais eficiente que os correspondentes materiais maciços (sistemas não-nanoestruturados). Em uma das abordagens utilizadas, um mediador híbrido de hexacianoferrato de cobre/polipirrol (CuHCNFe/Ppy) teve suas propriedades eletroquímicas aliadas às propriedades morfológicas e eletrônicas de um feltro revestido com nanotubos de carbono do tipo \"cup-stacked\" (feltro/NTCCS) para o desenvolvimento de um sensor de H2O2. O feltro/NTCCS é uma malha hidrofílica condutora que permite uma dispersão bastante uniforme do mediador híbrido. Essa característica, aliada ao aumento da área eletroativa e à interação eletrônica existente entre o CuHCNFe/PPy e os nanotubos de carbono criaram uma plataforma favorável para a construção de um biossensor de glicose. Em uma segunda estratégia, esferas de poliestireno com diâmetros de 300, 460, 600 e 800 nm foram utilizadas como molde para a formação de filmes de CuHCNFe/PPy macroporosos. Os distintos mediadores foram aplicados na detecção de H2O2 com o intuito de se correlacionar a importância do tamanho do poro com o desempenho analítico obtido. Diferentemente do esperado, os mediadores maciços e porosos apresentaram desempenhos analíticos bastante similares, o que levou a uma consideração das propriedades termodinâmicas de superfícies curvas, da molhabilidade de materiais porosos e da influência da cinética eletroquímica na utilização de sistemas porosos. Tais plataformas também foram aplicadas com sucesso na construção de biossensores de glicose e de colina. Por fim, foi possível sintetizar mediadores nanoestruturados através da imobilização de camadas de azul da Prússia e de CuHCNFe dentro das cavidades de filmes de TiO2 mesoporosos (13, 20 e 40 nm de diâmetro). Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a possibilidade de se modular o desempenho dos sensores de H2O2 em função do diâmetro dos poros e da quantidade de mediador imobilizado. A união dos resultados analíticos obtidos com os dados de microscopia eletrônica de varredura possibilitou observar a importância do efeito de confinamento no desempenho dos mediadores. Além disso, dados espectroscópicos na região do visível foram fundamentais para relacionar a presença de defeitos estruturais com a reatividade do material. No fim, tais plataformas foram utilizadas para a formulação de biossensores de colina. / Nowadays, the challenges in the development of biosensors cover various aspects such as the need to improve the interface between the substrate and the biological material, the efficiency of the chemical signal transduction in a measurable one, the response time, the compatibility with biological matrices and the integration of different biological recognition elements in a single device, in order to perform detections of different analytes. In this context, the development of nanoscience has created very attractive features to optimize the aspects described above. Consequently, the present work studies the build up of nanostructured transducers that can operate more efficiently than the corresponding bulk materials (systems non-nanostructured). In one of the approaches used, a hybrid transducer consisting of copper hexacyanoferrate/polypyrrole (CuHCNFe/Ppy) had its electrochemical properties combined with the morphological and electronic properties of a felt decorated with cup-stacked type carbon nanotubes (felt/CSCNT) for development of a H2O2 sensor. Felt/CSCNT is a hydrophilic conductive mesh that allows a uniform dispersion of the hybrid transducer. This feature, coupled with the improvement of electroactive surface and with the electronic interaction among the CuHCNFe/Ppy and carbon nanotubes have created a favorable platform for the construction of a glucose biosensor. In a second strategy, polystyrene spheres with diameters of 300, 460, 600 and 800 nm were used as templates for the formation of macroporous CuHCNFe/Ppy films. The transducers were used to detect H2O2 in order to correlate the importance of pore size with the obtained analytical performance. Unlike expected, porous and bulk transducers presented very similar analytical performances, which led to a consideration of the thermodynamic properties of curved surfaces, the wettability of porous materials and the influence of electrochemical kinetics during the use of porous systems. Such platforms have also been successfully applied in the preparation of glucose and choline biosensors. Finally, it was possible to synthesize nanostructured transducers through the immobilization of Prussian blue layers and CuHCNFe inside the cavities of mesoporous TiO2 films (pore diameters of 13, 20 and 40 nm). The obtained results demonstrated the possibility of modulating the performance of H2O2 sensors according to the pore diameter and the amount of immobilized transducer. The union of the obtained analytical results with scanning electron microscopy data showed the importance of confinement effect on the transducers performances. In addition, spectroscopic data in the visible region were essential to correlate the presence of structural defects with the material reactivity. In the end, these platforms were used for the formulation of choline biosensors.

Os desafios atuais no desenvolvimento de biossensores abrangem diversos aspectos, tais como a necessidade de se aperfeiçoar a interface de contato entre o substrato e o material biológico, a eficiência de transdução do sinal químico em um sinal mensurável, o tempo de resposta, a compatibilidade dos biossensores com matrizes biológicas e a integração de diferentes elementos de reconhecimento biológico em um único dispositivo, visando a detecção de distintos analitos. Nesse contexto, o desenvolvimento da nanociência tem criado recursos bastante atraentes para otimizar os aspectos descritos acima. O presente trabalho apresenta, portanto, estudos realizados para a construção de mediadores nanoestruturados que possam operar de maneira mais eficiente que os correspondentes materiais maciços (sistemas não-nanoestruturados). Em uma das abordagens utilizadas, um mediador híbrido de hexacianoferrato de cobre/polipirrol (CuHCNFe/Ppy) teve suas propriedades eletroquímicas aliadas às propriedades morfológicas e eletrônicas de um feltro revestido com nanotubos de carbono do tipo \"cup-stacked\" (feltro/NTCCS) para o desenvolvimento de um sensor de H2O2. O feltro/NTCCS é uma malha hidrofílica condutora que permite uma dispersão bastante uniforme do mediador híbrido. Essa característica, aliada ao aumento da área eletroativa e à interação eletrônica existente entre o CuHCNFe/PPy e os nanotubos de carbono criaram uma plataforma favorável para a construção de um biossensor de glicose. Em uma segunda estratégia, esferas de poliestireno com diâmetros de 300, 460, 600 e 800 nm foram utilizadas como molde para a formação de filmes de CuHCNFe/PPy macroporosos. Os distintos mediadores foram aplicados na detecção de H2O2 com o intuito de se correlacionar a importância do tamanho do poro com o desempenho analítico obtido. Diferentemente do esperado, os mediadores maciços e porosos apresentaram desempenhos analíticos bastante similares, o que levou a uma consideração das propriedades termodinâmicas de superfícies curvas, da molhabilidade de materiais porosos e da influência da cinética eletroquímica na utilização de sistemas porosos. Tais plataformas também foram aplicadas com sucesso na construção de biossensores de glicose e de colina. Por fim, foi possível sintetizar mediadores nanoestruturados através da imobilização de camadas de azul da Prússia e de CuHCNFe dentro das cavidades de filmes de TiO2 mesoporosos (13, 20 e 40 nm de diâmetro). Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a possibilidade de se modular o desempenho dos sensores de H2O2 em função do diâmetro dos poros e da quantidade de mediador imobilizado. A união dos resultados analíticos obtidos com os dados de microscopia eletrônica de varredura possibilitou observar a importância do efeito de confinamento no desempenho dos mediadores. Além disso, dados espectroscópicos na região do visível foram fundamentais para relacionar a presença de defeitos estruturais com a reatividade do material. No fim, tais plataformas foram utilizadas para a formulação de biossensores de colina. / Nowadays, the challenges in the development of biosensors cover various aspects such as the need to improve the interface between the substrate and the biological material, the efficiency of the chemical signal transduction in a measurable one, the response time, the compatibility with biological matrices and the integration of different biological recognition elements in a single device, in order to perform detections of different analytes. In this context, the development of nanoscience has created very attractive features to optimize the aspects described above. Consequently, the present work studies the build up of nanostructured transducers that can operate more efficiently than the corresponding bulk materials (systems non-nanostructured). In one of the approaches used, a hybrid transducer consisting of copper hexacyanoferrate/polypyrrole (CuHCNFe/Ppy) had its electrochemical properties combined with the morphological and electronic properties of a felt decorated with cup-stacked type carbon nanotubes (felt/CSCNT) for development of a H2O2 sensor. Felt/CSCNT is a hydrophilic conductive mesh that allows a uniform dispersion of the hybrid transducer. This feature, coupled with the improvement of electroactive surface and with the electronic interaction among the CuHCNFe/Ppy and carbon nanotubes have created a favorable platform for the construction of a glucose biosensor. In a second strategy, polystyrene spheres with diameters of 300, 460, 600 and 800 nm were used as templates for the formation of macroporous CuHCNFe/Ppy films. The transducers were used to detect H2O2 in order to correlate the importance of pore size with the obtained analytical performance. Unlike expected, porous and bulk transducers presented very similar analytical performances, which led to a consideration of the thermodynamic properties of curved surfaces, the wettability of porous materials and the influence of electrochemical kinetics during the use of porous systems. Such platforms have also been successfully applied in the preparation of glucose and choline biosensors. Finally, it was possible to synthesize nanostructured transducers through the immobilization of Prussian blue layers and CuHCNFe inside the cavities of mesoporous TiO2 films (pore diameters of 13, 20 and 40 nm). The obtained results demonstrated the possibility of modulating the performance of H2O2 sensors according to the pore diameter and the amount of immobilized transducer. The union of the obtained analytical results with scanning electron microscopy data showed the importance of confinement effect on the transducers performances. In addition, spectroscopic data in the visible region were essential to correlate the presence of structural defects with the material reactivity. In the end, these platforms were used for the formulation of choline biosensors.

<div>Self-assembled templates allow the creation of many complex arrays of nanostructures, which would be extremely difficult and expensive, if not impossible, to realize using any of the other available fabrication techniques. The complexity of these advanced nanostructures, synthesized using the various template assisted electrodeposition techniques, can be controlled to nanometer scale range by tuning the structural properties of the template, which is achieved by adjusting its various growth parameters during the self-assembly process.</div><div>Electrodeposition allows the creation of arrays of various metallic and semiconducting nanostructures. Monitoring the electrodeposition conditions permit the creation of single crystalline nanostructures of a particular material, or the formation of heterostructures using multiple electrodeposition steps. This work demonstrates the template assisted electrodeposition of vertically aligned nanowire arrays, both straight and branched, of metals, and a direct bandgap, III-V semiconductor, indium antimonide (InSb), which has one of the smallest known bandgap of any material. The template assisted electrodeposition of metallic, and InSb inverse opal (IO) structures is also shown, and the fabrication of a novel zipper shaped nanostructure by laser photomodification of a Ni IO structure is reported.</div><div>The optical characterization of the various nanostructures realized in this work have been examined. The results from this work confirm the ability to tune the optical spectra of nanostructures of the same material with similar volume fill fractions by structural modulation, where the different optical responses can be attributed to the structural differences of the actual structure as opposed to the material properties of the solid.</div>