<p>Astra Zeneca plant in Gärtuna has many compression cooling machines for comfort that consume about 11.7 GWh of electricity per year. Many of the cooling machines are old; due to the increase of production of the plant, cooling capacity was limited and new machines have been built. Now, the cooling capacity is over-sized. Söderenergi is the district heating plant that supplies heating to Astra Zeneca plant. Due to the strict environmental policy in the energy plant, last year, a bio-fuelled CHP plant was built. It is awarded with the electricity certificate system.</p><p>The study investigates the possibility for converting some of the compression cooling to absorption cooling and then analyzes the effects of the district heating system through MODEST optimizations. The effects of the analysis are studied in a system composed by the district heating system in Södertälje and cooling system in Astra Zeneca. In the current system the district heating production is from boiler and compression system supplies cooling to Astra Zeneca. The future system includes a CHP plant for the heating production, and compression system is converted to absorption system in Astra Zeneca. Four effects are analyzed in the system: optimal distribution of the district heating production with the plants available, saving fuel, environmental impact and total cost. The environmental impact has been analyzed considering the marginal electricity from coal condensing plants. The total cost is divided in two parts: production cost, in which district heating cost, purchase of electricity and Emissions Trading cost are included, and investment costs. The progressive changes are introduced in the system as four different scenarios.<strong></strong></p><p>The introduction of the absorption machines in the system with the current district heating production increases the total cost due to the low electricity price in Sweden. The introduction of the CHP plant in the district heating production supposes a profit of the production cost with compression system due to the high income of the electricity produced that is sold to the grid; it profit increases when compression is replaced by absorption system. The fuel used in the production of the future system decreases and also the emissions. Then, the future system becomes an opportunity from an environmental and economical point of view. At higher purchase electricity prices predicted in the open electricity market for an immediately future, the future system will become more economically advantageous.</p><p> </p><p> </p>

Astra Zeneca plant in Gärtuna has many compression cooling machines for comfort that consume about 11.7 GWh of electricity per year. Many of the cooling machines are old; due to the increase of production of the plant, cooling capacity was limited and new machines have been built. Now, the cooling capacity is over-sized. Söderenergi is the district heating plant that supplies heating to Astra Zeneca plant. Due to the strict environmental policy in the energy plant, last year, a bio-fuelled CHP plant was built. It is awarded with the electricity certificate system. The study investigates the possibility for converting some of the compression cooling to absorption cooling and then analyzes the effects of the district heating system through MODEST optimizations. The effects of the analysis are studied in a system composed by the district heating system in Södertälje and cooling system in Astra Zeneca. In the current system the district heating production is from boiler and compression system supplies cooling to Astra Zeneca. The future system includes a CHP plant for the heating production, and compression system is converted to absorption system in Astra Zeneca. Four effects are analyzed in the system: optimal distribution of the district heating production with the plants available, saving fuel, environmental impact and total cost. The environmental impact has been analyzed considering the marginal electricity from coal condensing plants. The total cost is divided in two parts: production cost, in which district heating cost, purchase of electricity and Emissions Trading cost are included, and investment costs. The progressive changes are introduced in the system as four different scenarios. The introduction of the absorption machines in the system with the current district heating production increases the total cost due to the low electricity price in Sweden. The introduction of the CHP plant in the district heating production supposes a profit of the production cost with compression system due to the high income of the electricity produced that is sold to the grid; it profit increases when compression is replaced by absorption system. The fuel used in the production of the future system decreases and also the emissions. Then, the future system becomes an opportunity from an environmental and economical point of view. At higher purchase electricity prices predicted in the open electricity market for an immediately future, the future system will become more economically advantageous.

<p>This licentiate thesis proposes and analyzes three carbon dioxide novel cycles, namely: the carbon dioxide transcritical power cycle, the carbon dioxide Brayton cycle and the carbon dioxide cooling and power combined cycle. Due to the different characteristics of each cycle, the three cycles are suitable for different applications. The CO₂ transcritical power cycle is suitable for harvesting energy from low-grade heat sources, near which a low temperature heat sink is accessible. The CO₂Brayton cycle is suitable for harvesting the energy from relatively high-grade heat sources when there is no low temperature heat sink available. The CO₂cooling and power combined cycle is suitable for applications, where both power and cooling are needed (e.g. automobile applications, in which the cycle can utilize the energy in the engine exhaust gasses to produce power and provide cooling/heating to the mobile compartment room at the same time).</p><p>Several models have been developed using the software known as Engineering Equation Solver (EES)¹for both cycle analysis and computer aided heat exchanger design. Different cycle working conditions have been simulated and different working parameters’ influence on the cycle performance has been explained. In addition, Refprop 7.0² is used for calculating the working fluid properties and the CFD tool Femlab has been employed to investigate the particular phenomena influencing the heat exchanger performance.</p>

<p>Following licentiate thesis is a summary of the advances made within the research project - Micro- and nano structured surfaces for enhanced boiling heat transfer – which is a collaboration effort between the Divi-sion of Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration and the Division of Materials Chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).</p><p>The main objectives with this research project has been to: <i>develop</i> <i>methods for producing highly efficient boiling surfaces with well defined</i> <i>micro- and nano-structured porous surfaces by the use of micro- a</i>nd <i>nano-manufacturing techniques</i>. This objective has been achieved and the result is a novel micro-porous surface structure comprising dendritically ordered nano-particles of cop-per. The structure was fabricated by a high-current-density electrode-position process, in which the evolution of hydrogen bubbles serve as a dynamic masking template to the growth of the dendritic copper struc-ture. Important variables were identified that affect the production of the structure and its features, such as surface orientation during electrode-position, pressure and temperature of electrolyte, and a final heat treat-ment of the surface under reduced atmosphere, all of which have previ-ously not been reported on.</p><p>Experimental tests have been conducted in a widely used refrigerant, R134a, where the micro-porous structure was shown to enhance the boiling performance of a copper surface over 15 times compared to a regular copper surface. The boiling characteristics of the structure were found to be dependent on controllable surface characteristics. The re-markably good boiling performance of the novel micro-porous en-hancement structure has been attributed to its high porosity ( ~94%), a dendritically formed and exceptionally large surface area, and to a high density of well suited vapor escape channels (>50 per mm2).</p><p>A patent application, intended to protect the enhancement structure and its fabrication method, was submitted to the Swedish patent authorities (PRV) on March 1st, 2006.</p>

<p>This is a report written for an examination project C-level, on the subject of energy. The examination project is a product of the FVB Sweden AB (district heating bureau). It started with a meeting with Stefan Jonsson FVB Sweden AB, were he explained the content of the project, and from this a presentation of the problem was made. The problem that needed to be solved was how they could control the valves in the system to provide heating to everyone in the system. The valves are often oversized so the pump in the heating plant would have to be enormous to be able to provide enough flow to be sufficient, if everyone in the system had there valves fully opened.</p><p> </p><p>I came up with two solutions to the problem, one was a wireless network that could keep track of the valves and the other solution was an extra sensor that was placed on the radiator. The purpose for that was to open the valve if the temperature dropped more than one degree inside. With the help of a program called IDA it was calculated that, if the temperature drop five degrees, they would have sixteen hours at the heating power plant to open the flow before the sensor open the valves.</p><p> </p><p>After careful consideration I came up with the conclusion that the wireless network must be the best solution. Mostly because you can monitor all the clients in the system from the heating power plant and that will make it easier to discover faults and temperature differences.</p><p>Wireless networks is already a well tested solution in form of wireless controlled electricity meters so it shouldn’t be to much of a problem connecting these sensors to it either.</p>

<p>This thesis presents a study of the cooling process of a solid block performed by a turbulent air flow channel. The study focuses on the turbulent flow and its influence in the heat transfer of the block.</p><p>The first part of the thesis is an analysis of the different turbulent model and their adaptation on the necessities of this study. Once the turbulent model has been confirmed it makes a study of the behavior of the cooling process by CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), and an analysis of the numerical accuracy of this computational study.</p><p>When the procedure of the study of the cooling process is defined it proposes some different variations in the initial solution to improve this process. The study concentrates in variations of the turbulence and the geometry of the studied block.</p><p>Finally, the different improving are discussed analyzing parameters as the heat transfer, pressure drop, time consuming or energy consuming.</p>

<p>This project has been developed at the company Gavlegardarna. The companyowns a large part of the buildings of Gävle and two of them are the objective ofthe project. Gavlegardana is highly concerned about the environment; for thisreason, they cooperate on the subject with the energy management from theirtechnical department.</p><p>Gävle is one of the Swedish cities where the DH (district heating) network isdistributed, arriving to most of the dwellings, industries and commercialbuildings. As DH uses environmentally friendly sources of energy,Gavlegardana is introducing it in its buildings.</p><p>Electrical radiators and boilers were installed in the buildings when the price ofelectricity was more affordable than nowadays. The price of the electricity canbe considered 1,23 SEK/kWh while the DH price is 0,45 SEK/kWh.</p><p>Consequently, this is another reason why the objective of the company at thepresent time is to replace electrical space heating systems by means of districtheating.</p><p>The energy balance of the buildings is analysed in order to study their currentenergy situation. This entails the consideration of heat gains and lossesinvolved. The heat gains of the building are the heat from solar radiation whicharrives at the building trough the windows, the heat internally generated (bypersons, lighting and other devices) and the heat supplied. The heat losses are composed by the transmission trough walls and windows, the infiltrations, the heat used for hot tap water and the ventilation losses.</p><p>An important part of the work required to calculate the energy balance hasconsisted of the collection and organization of all the data (areas, types ofmaterial, electrical devices, lighting, number of employees, opening hours...).This data comes from the drawings of the buildings provided by the companyand from the information gathered during the visits to the installation. In addition, the ventilation flows were measured in-situ using the tools provided by Theorells.</p><p>Gavle Energi, the DH distributor company, has been contacted in order to fixthe cost and other details related to the district heating connection. The heatexchanger models, selected from Palmat System AB, are TP20 for Building Aand TP10 for Building B. TP20 provides 100 kW of heating and 0,4 l/s of hot tap water and TP10 provides 50 kW and 0,31 l/s respectively. The capital cost is 187500 SEK which includes the heat exchangers and the connection cost.</p><p>As the secondary circuit is not currently installed because the existing system iscomposed by electrical radiators, the installation of the piping network in thebuilding has been designed. The radiators’ power is calculated taking intoaccount the need of heat in each room which is estimated as the transmissionlosses. This need of heat calculated is higher than the energy currently supplied which means that the thermal comfort is not achieved in all the rooms of the buildings.</p><p>In spite of using more energy for space heating, the change of heat sourceentails a lower energy cost per year. The selected radiators are from Epeconand the investment cost (including the installation) is 203671 SEK. The brand of the selected pipes is Broson and the investment cost of the total piping system is 66000 SEK.</p><p>The initial investment of the new installation is 457171 SEK, considering the DHconnection, heat exchangers, radiators and pipes. If the initial investment istotally paid in cash by the company the payback will be fulfilled in 6 years. Incase of borrowing the money from the bank (considering an interest rate of 5%), two possibilities can be considered: paying back the money in annual rates over 15 years or 30 years of maturity. The paybacks are 11 and 8 years respectively.</p><p>After designing the DH piping system in the buildings, estimating the total costs of the investment and studying the project’s feasibility by suggesting different payment options, some possible energy savings are recommended.</p><p> </p><p>The first of the options refers to the transmission losses trough the windowswhose values’ are considerably high. Using a glass with a lower U-value, theselosses can decrease until 66% (with triple glass windows). Consequently, thepower required for space heating can also be reduced until 26%.</p><p>Regarding the ventilation, rotating heat exchangers are currently used, whichentails the problem of smells mixture detected by the users of the buildings. By changing them with flat-plate heat exchangers, the problem is solved and the efficiency is increased from 66% to 85%. The new heat exchanger cost is340387 SEK and it has a payback of 10 years.</p>

<p>Detta arbete beskriver hur Herons ångkula fungerar och hur den har byggts.</p><p>Ånkulan konstruerades för ca 2000 år av Heron.</p><p>Meningen var att få fram en verkningsgrad eftersom denna var okänd. Verkningsgraden blev aldrig konstaterad. Endast en teoretisk beräkning för verkningsgraden gjordes. Kulan sattes inte i rotation av ångtrycket som byggdes upp när det eldades under denna.</p><p>Anledningen var troligen att det var för mycket friktion i tätningen som skulle tillföra matarvatten in i kulan. Värmeöverföringen mellan gaslågan och kulkroppen var inte heller den mest optimala.</p><p>Kulan med tillhörande kringutrustning byggdes under dec-07/jan-08 efter eget tycke och utan någon existerande ritning. Den byggdes för att efterlikna originalet så mycket som möjligt. Dessutom hade en mindre ångkula byggts några år tidigare och denna hade visat sig fungera. Denna något större ångkula fick därför samma utseende.</p><p>Eftersom ångkulan inte orkade rotera råder det inga tvivel om hur ineffektiv denna tidiga reaktionsmotorn är.</p><p>Den fick ingen praktisk betydelse för 2000 år sedan, och det har den inte idag heller.</p><p>En framräknad verkningsgrad finns redovisad och denna blev mycket låg.</p><p>Det var stimulerandel att bygga Herons ångkula men konstruktionen i sig tillhör inte de mest lyckade.</p> / <p>This work describes how the Herons steam ball was built and how it works. It was constructed by Heron 2000 years ago. The purpose was to determine the efficiency of the steam ball because it was unknown. The efficiency was never determined. It was only theoretically determined by calculations. The steam pressure never gave the steam ball rotation when heat was added underneath the construction. A possible reason was that friction in the sealing for supplying feed water into the steam ball was too high.</p><p>The heat transfer was also a reason that the construction did not rotate.</p><p>The steam ball and necessary equipment was fabricated in dec-07/jan-08. It was built without any drawings. The goal was to make it look like the original as much as possible. A smaller steam ball was built some years before. This one did rotate and therefore was the same design given to the bigger one.</p><p>Because of the lack of rotation there was no doubt if the steam ball was a sucsess or not.</p><p>It was not used for any real purpose 2000 years ago and this has not changed.</p><p>A calculated figure of the efficiency was documented in this rapport, and it was very low.</p><p>It was amusing to design and build the steam ball but the construction was clearly no success.</p>

This is a report written for an examination project C-level, on the subject of energy. The examination project is a product of the FVB Sweden AB (district heating bureau). It started with a meeting with Stefan Jonsson FVB Sweden AB, were he explained the content of the project, and from this a presentation of the problem was made. The problem that needed to be solved was how they could control the valves in the system to provide heating to everyone in the system. The valves are often oversized so the pump in the heating plant would have to be enormous to be able to provide enough flow to be sufficient, if everyone in the system had there valves fully opened.   I came up with two solutions to the problem, one was a wireless network that could keep track of the valves and the other solution was an extra sensor that was placed on the radiator. The purpose for that was to open the valve if the temperature dropped more than one degree inside. With the help of a program called IDA it was calculated that, if the temperature drop five degrees, they would have sixteen hours at the heating power plant to open the flow before the sensor open the valves.   After careful consideration I came up with the conclusion that the wireless network must be the best solution. Mostly because you can monitor all the clients in the system from the heating power plant and that will make it easier to discover faults and temperature differences. Wireless networks is already a well tested solution in form of wireless controlled electricity meters so it shouldn’t be to much of a problem connecting these sensors to it either.

This project has been developed at the company Gavlegardarna. The companyowns a large part of the buildings of Gävle and two of them are the objective ofthe project. Gavlegardana is highly concerned about the environment; for thisreason, they cooperate on the subject with the energy management from theirtechnical department. Gävle is one of the Swedish cities where the DH (district heating) network isdistributed, arriving to most of the dwellings, industries and commercialbuildings. As DH uses environmentally friendly sources of energy,Gavlegardana is introducing it in its buildings. Electrical radiators and boilers were installed in the buildings when the price ofelectricity was more affordable than nowadays. The price of the electricity canbe considered 1,23 SEK/kWh while the DH price is 0,45 SEK/kWh. Consequently, this is another reason why the objective of the company at thepresent time is to replace electrical space heating systems by means of districtheating. The energy balance of the buildings is analysed in order to study their currentenergy situation. This entails the consideration of heat gains and lossesinvolved. The heat gains of the building are the heat from solar radiation whicharrives at the building trough the windows, the heat internally generated (bypersons, lighting and other devices) and the heat supplied. The heat losses are composed by the transmission trough walls and windows, the infiltrations, the heat used for hot tap water and the ventilation losses. An important part of the work required to calculate the energy balance hasconsisted of the collection and organization of all the data (areas, types ofmaterial, electrical devices, lighting, number of employees, opening hours...).This data comes from the drawings of the buildings provided by the companyand from the information gathered during the visits to the installation. In addition, the ventilation flows were measured in-situ using the tools provided by Theorells. Gavle Energi, the DH distributor company, has been contacted in order to fixthe cost and other details related to the district heating connection. The heatexchanger models, selected from Palmat System AB, are TP20 for Building Aand TP10 for Building B. TP20 provides 100 kW of heating and 0,4 l/s of hot tap water and TP10 provides 50 kW and 0,31 l/s respectively. The capital cost is 187500 SEK which includes the heat exchangers and the connection cost. As the secondary circuit is not currently installed because the existing system iscomposed by electrical radiators, the installation of the piping network in thebuilding has been designed. The radiators’ power is calculated taking intoaccount the need of heat in each room which is estimated as the transmissionlosses. This need of heat calculated is higher than the energy currently supplied which means that the thermal comfort is not achieved in all the rooms of the buildings. In spite of using more energy for space heating, the change of heat sourceentails a lower energy cost per year. The selected radiators are from Epeconand the investment cost (including the installation) is 203671 SEK. The brand of the selected pipes is Broson and the investment cost of the total piping system is 66000 SEK. The initial investment of the new installation is 457171 SEK, considering the DHconnection, heat exchangers, radiators and pipes. If the initial investment istotally paid in cash by the company the payback will be fulfilled in 6 years. Incase of borrowing the money from the bank (considering an interest rate of 5%), two possibilities can be considered: paying back the money in annual rates over 15 years or 30 years of maturity. The paybacks are 11 and 8 years respectively. After designing the DH piping system in the buildings, estimating the total costs of the investment and studying the project’s feasibility by suggesting different payment options, some possible energy savings are recommended.   The first of the options refers to the transmission losses trough the windowswhose values’ are considerably high. Using a glass with a lower U-value, theselosses can decrease until 66% (with triple glass windows). Consequently, thepower required for space heating can also be reduced until 26%. Regarding the ventilation, rotating heat exchangers are currently used, whichentails the problem of smells mixture detected by the users of the buildings. By changing them with flat-plate heat exchangers, the problem is solved and the efficiency is increased from 66% to 85%. The new heat exchanger cost is340387 SEK and it has a payback of 10 years.