The main subject of my papers has been the phylum Tardigrada, with particular emphasis on the Antarctic fauna. While this is one of the ‘lesser known phyla’ the group forms an important element of Antarctic non-marine ecosystems. My work has centred on four interrelated themes: i) taxonomy, predominantly Tardigrada and with an Antarctic bias though including wider global species and high taxon groupings (I have also worked on other taxa such as Fungi-imperfecti and freshwater invertebrates); ii) biodiversity of tardigrades, particularly Antarctic habitats; iii) data-based studies based on the terrestrial Tardigrada and Antarctic freshwater crustaceans; and iv) biogeographic analysis of these databases. The thesis presented consists of papers published in major, peer-reviewed journals, along with book chapters published and in press. Several of my papers have been cited 10-30 times according to the ISI Web of Science citation system. Highlights of my work include being the first to publish a paper on the global terrestrial biogeography of a phylum and showing the extant limno-terrestrial tardigrade fauna reflect the early tectonic break-up of the Laurasia, West and East Gondwana super continents between 65 and 135 million years ago.

Baited pitfall traps were used to sample the lizard fauna at Birdlings Flat on Kaitorete Spit, Canterbury. Four species had been recorded previously from this area; Leiolopisma maccanni Patterson and Daugherty, Leiolopisma nigriplantare polychroma Patterson and Daugherty, Leiolopisma lineoocellatum (Dumeril and Dumeril) and Hoplodactylus maculatus (Gray). Three of these species (L. maccanni, L. n. polychroma and H. maculatus) were captured during the course of the study. The aim of this present study was to examine the nature of the ecological relationship among these three species at Birdlings Flat. Capture data indicated that L. maccanni was almost entirely confined to the dunelands while L. n. polychroma was associated exclusively with shrublands on old dune ridges behind the sand dunes. H. maculatus' distribution encompassed both of these major habitats. Separation on the basis of habitat was thought to be the most important niche variable for these two diurnal skinks. There was some temporal separation in activity of these two species, with L. maccanni active earlier in the day than L. n. polychroma. However, there was a high degree of overlap in the activity periods of these two species. Temporal differentiation between the nocturnal gecko H. maculatus and the two diurnal skinks is thought to be an important means by which these species coexist. The most common prey items consumed by all three species were Diptera, Araneae, C. propinqua seeds, Hemiptera, unidentified arthropod eggs, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Dietary differences between the two skink species were apparent although these differences appeared to be related to the preferred habitats of the respective species. Density estimates for L. maccanni varied between 1050/ha and 1850/ha while L. n. polychroma density varied between 200/ha and 400/ha. The density of H. maculatus was not calculated but appeared to be intermediate to the density of the two skink species. The apparent disappearance of L. lineoocellatum from an area where they were once relatively common is cause for concern. There is no obvious reason for this decline although it may be related to the combined impacts of predation, collection and habitat disturbance.

The breeding success of the Little Penguin was significantly higher in northern populations compared with documented southern colonies. Several southern colonies including Phillip Island in Victoria and colonies in Tasmania, have been characterised by poor breeding success, increasingly later commencement of breeding, and declining populations. This study aimed to compare and contrast the ecological attributes of a thriving northern population with other documented colonies. I collected long term data on breeding success (1987 to 1997) of the Little Penguin on Bowen Island, and related variability in breeding success to ocean currents and climate patterns, foraging behaviour and diet, nesting habitat, and inter-specific and fisheries competition. The benefits of successional changes to nesting habitat on Bowen Island since active habitat management commenced in 1989 were examined, including the importance of burrow depth, aspect, distance to water from the burrow, and vegetation type on breeding success of the Little Penguin. Morphological measurements of east coast penguins indicated a north-south cline, similar to that described in New Zealand. The Little Penguin was larger at higher latitudes. Whilst adults were sedentary and displayed a high degree of nest site fidelity, juveniles dispersed widely in their first three years, but then returned to the colony, sometimes to their natal burrow, to breed. This appears to be an adaptive mechanism, which selects for high quality nesting habitat. The study confirmed earlier findings that mature vegetation assemblages, namely woodland and forest, support higher breeding success than structurally simpler grassland and herbland habitat. This may contribute to observed differences in breeding success between northern and southern colonies, because many of the southern colonies have degraded nesting habitat. Most important to the diet of the Little Penguin were clupeoids, which dominated the fish species of Jervis Bay. The substantial clupeoid resources were targeted by the tuna fishery for bait, in the same areas and coinciding with maximum demands (chick raising and fledging), as penguins. The potential quantity of baitfish taken from Jervis Bay was over 10, 000 tonnes per year, which was well beyond the quantities raising concerns in other regions, although the fishery remains unregulated. Nevertheless, the foraging range of Bowen Island penguins was smaller than has previously been described Little Penguins on Bowen Island had a heavy reliance on relatively shallow waters of the Bay, within 5 km of the island. Daily foraging distances exceeding 20 km coincided with low breeding success, sometimes below that required for population replacement. Greater daily foraging range during the breeding season in southern Victoria may explain in part why these populations are declining. The principal mechanism for nutrient enrichment of Jervis Bay waters was the East Australia Current (EAC). This is a large and powerful, warm water boundary current of 250 km diameter and 1000 feet depth, which promoted slope water intrusion through upwelling along the New South Wales coast during the study, particularly during the penguin breeding season. The EAC effects northern colonies, but less so southern colonies. The Bowen Island colony was prone to periodic breeding failure, which was related to the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, indicated in Australia by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). ENSO warm events, corresponding with negative values of the SOI, depressed the EAC and caused downwelling, leading in some seasons to increased breeding failure. There was a correlation between both fledging success and adult mortality, and the SOI. The mean breeding success of the Bowen Island colony, at 1.46 chicks per pair over the ten-year study, was the highest recorded for the Little Penguin, and the population was increasing.

<p>Denna undersökning gjordes för att studera solitära steklars boplatsval speciellt med avseende på spatiala mönster. Aggregat av lämpliga bohål (<em>bibatterier</em>) tillverkades och gjordes tillgängliga förfrilevande steklar. Resultatet visade att steklar tenderar att anlägga bon i närheten av andra stekelbon. Ingen tendens fanns att anlägga bon i centralt belägna positioner. Steklarna verkar också föredra att anlägga bon till vänster om en tänkt mittllinje på bibatterierna. Aggregation kan vara ett sätt att undgå parasitering och predation vid boplatsen. Om detta orsakade aggregationstendensen var det dock något oväntat att inte också en central tendens kunde påvisas. Att steklarna föredrog bohål i bibatteriernas vänstra del är svårt att förklara.</p>

<p>Three species of burnet moths (<em>Zygaena</em> <em>filipendulae</em>,<em> Z</em>. <em>lonicerae</em> and <em>Z</em>. <em>viciae</em>) were studied on the Baltic island Öland, Sweden, in order to reveal the habitat requirements of different life stages. Larvae were found among a higher cover of their most important host plant, <em>Lotus corniculatus</em>, <em>Trifolium medium</em>/<em>pratense </em>or<em> Vicia </em>spp., than were pupae or imagines, and were also observed on plants larger than randomly examined plants. Imagines actively selected nectar plants of <em>Centaurea </em>and <em>Cirsium</em>, growing in sunny conditions, but other red and violet Asteraceae flowers were also favoured. Pupae of <em>Z</em>.<em> filipendulae</em> appeared in taller vegetation than larvae and imagines, probably because the cocoons are spun high on stems of grasses and other plants. The chance of finding such suitable substrates rises with increasing vegetation height. A large scale analysis of occupancy patterns was also made, evaluating the relationship between burnet presence or absence and the area of meadows and pastures within 10 x 10 km grid cells in southern Sweden. All three species showed a positive relationship with increasing area of semi-natural grassland. Thresholds for the amount of habitat, below which the likelihood of occurrence declined more rapidly, could be distinguished around a 40-50 % probability of occurrence. Conservational work should aim at preserving and restoring open and sunny areas, rich in the respective host plants and nectar sources, but vegetation management must be executed with great care or late in the season to not harm unhatched pupae and to maintain substrates suitable for <em>Z</em>. <em>filipendulae</em> pupation.</p>

<p>The tropical palm <em>Mauritia flexuosa </em>has highly nutritious fruits and is an important food resource for both humans and wildlife throughout its geographic range in South America. Unsustainable harvesting threatens wild populations. <em>Mauritia f</em>. occurs primarily in wetlands called Aguajales where it can become the dominating canopy species. Seed predation and dispersal can dramatically affect the survival and distribution of plant species in tropical rainforests (Janzen 1970, Connell 1971, Bleher & Böhning-Gaese 2001, Paine & Beck 2007, Mari et al. 2008). Increased knowledge of seed predation and germination requirements is essential for successful management of this commercially and ecologically important palm. Four experiments were conducted in Manu National Park in southeastern Peru to study: (1) Seed survival in the Aguajal, (2) Quantify seed predators on dry land, (3) Insect visitors and consumers of fruits and seeds, and (4) Germination in greenhouse experiments. Seed survival was significantly higher below water compared to on dry micro sites within the Aguajal. Seeds and fruits placed on dry land were preyed upon by both insects and mammals. Terrestrial insects were the most important predators. Different insects visited fruits and seeds, indicating a successive breakdown of different tissues. Seed survival was also higher below water and/or soil in the greenhouse experiment. This may suggest that the distribution of <em>Mauritia f</em>. is highly influenced by seed predation and that water protects seeds from their insect enemies.</p>

<p>In 1994 a new Forestry Act was accepted in Sweden. One of its aims was to raise the consideration for preservation of biodiversity. Since this happened over 15 years ago there is now an interest in analyzing if the law has been effective in its purpose. In this study methods suitable for analysis are being investigated. The study contents a pilot study of methods for five parameters that can validate if the law has been followed. The fieldstudy were executed in Orsa, Dalarna, Sweden in a managed forest and where last clearcut was done after 1994. The work consisted of measuring the parameters in the field and to compare them with data from before 1994. The benefits of the parameters and the current and previous Forestry Act and their differences are discussed in the report. The parameters examined were the distribution of tree species, standing dead wood, smaller areas saved for preservation, big trees and trees with cavities/cavernous trees. All of these plus a few other variables favourable for the diversity of species in the forest are dealt with in the 30 § in the Forestry Act of 1994. The study implied that the variables reported to be favourable for biodiversity, and possible to investigate within the restrictions of this study, seemed to have increased. The results should however be interpreted with care since the study is small and the reference values sometimes were missing or covering larger areas than the field data.</p>

No description available.

<p>Modern methods for managing pine (<em>Pinus sylvestris</em>) create homogenized forests. This decreases nature’s potential for biodiversity and might threaten species in need of different types of milieu. The main purpose of this study was to investigate how important older pine trees are for biodiversity. In the Hall-Hangvar Reserve in the north-west part of Gotland, insects collected from traps showed that more species were found in old or dead trees compared to younger pine trees. A statistically significant difference was found for Coleoptera (beetles). The taxons of greatest interest for this study were Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (wasps). Certain families of Hymenoptera use ducts made by larvae from some families of Coleoptera.These larvae also serve as prey. Relevance concerning enviromental importance to species and diffrenences in inhabiting the three stages of pine trees was of importance.</p>

Lichens can colonize nearly all terrestrial habitats on earth and are functionally important in many ecosystems. Being poikilohydric, their active growth periods are restricted to periods when the thallus is hydrated from atmospheric water sources, such as rain, fog and high relative humidity. Since lichen hydration varies greatly over time lichen growth is therefore more difficult to model compared with, for example vascular plants with more even water supply. I developed two models to predict lichen hydration under field conditions that incorporates the atmospheric water potential (Ψair), derived from air temperature and humidity, only or in combination with species-specific rehydration and desiccation rates. Using Ψair allows the prediction of hydration induced by several water sources. These models were very accurate for epiphytic lichens with a close coupling to atmospheric conditions, but they were less accurate for mat-forming lichens with substantial aerodynamic boundary layers. The hydration model was further developed to include photosynthetic activation for different species, in order to compare their performance under different micro-climatic scenarios. Water balance and activation rate had large effects on lichen activity and were positively related to habitats providing long hydration periods, for example close to streams. To study effects of climate change, a complete model for net carbon gain (photosynthesis minus respiratory losses) was developed for an epiphytic lichen with intricate responses to light, hydration and temperature. Simulation responses in different climate scenarios revealed that projected climate change on a regional scale resulted in varied local scale responses. At the lighter, exposed sites of a forest, the growth responses were positive, but were potentially negative at darker sites with closed canopy. At the local scale, fluctuating hydration, summed irradiance when wet and Chlorophyll a are variables that predict lichen growth. However, at a landscape scale, these variables may be too detailed. We tested this for two terrestrial, mat-forming lichens and developed statistical models for lichen growth in the widest possible climatic gradient in northern Scandinavia, varying in light, temperature and precipitation. Light was the most important factor for high growth at the landscape scale, reaching saturation at a site openness of 40 %, equivalent to a basal tree area of 15 m2 ha -1 in this study. Thereafter, hydration was the next limiting factor, which could be well described by precipitation for one of the species. The simplest predictor was the normal temperature in July, which was negatively correlated with growth. It was apparent that the predictive variables and their power varied at different scales. However, light and hydration are limiting at all scales, particularly by light conditions when lichens are wet. This implies that ensuring that there is sufficient light below the forest canopy is crucial for lichen growth, especially for mat-forming lichens. Hydrophilic lichens may be better preserved in open habitats with long hydration periods. It was shown that models can be powerful and “easy to use” tools to predict lichen responses in various habitats and under different climate scenarios. Models can therefore help to identify suitable habitats with optimal growth conditions, which is very important for the conservation and management of lichens and their habitats. / Lavar kan kolonisera nästan alla terrestriska habitat i världen och är funktionellt viktiga i många ekosystem. Eftersom lavar är poikilohydriska (växelblöta), är deras aktiva tillväxtperioder begränsade till den tid då bålen är blöt från atmosfäriska vattenkällor, såsom regn, dimma och hög relativ fuktighet. Eftersom lavars vatteninnehåll varierar stort över tid är lavars tillväxt svårare att modellera jämfört med till exempel kärlväxter, med en mer jämn vattentillgång. Jag har utvecklat två fuktmodeller som förutsäger lavars vatteninnehåll i fält. Modellerna använder den atmosfäriska vattenpotentialen (Ψair), som erhålls från lufttemperatur och -fuktighet, antingen enbart eller i kombination med de artspecifika uppblötnings - och uttorkningshastigheterna. Genom att använda (Ψair) kan man förutsäga lavars vatteninnehåll från flera vattenkällor. Dessa modeller var mycket precisa för epifytiska lavar med en nära koppling till de atmosfäriska förhållandena, men fungerade mindre väl för mattlevande lavar med ett betydande gränsskikt. Fuktmodellen utvecklades ytterligare för att inkludera även fotosyntetisk aktivering av olika lavar, för att kunna jämföra deras aktivitet i olika mikroklimatiska scenarior. Vattenbalans och aktiveringshastighet hade stor effekt på på lavars aktivitet och var positivt relaterad till habitat med tillräckligt långa fuktperioder, till exempel habitat nära strömmande vatten. För att studera klimateffekter på lavar, utvecklade jag en total modell för nettoförvärv av kol (fotosyntes minus respiration) för en epifytisk lav med dess intrikata förhållande mellan ljus, fukt och temperatur. Simuleringar av modellen visade att lavens responser i förhållande till regionala klimatförändringar var kontrasterande på lokal nivå. Vid ljusa, öppna lokaler i skogen ökade tillväxten medan de potentiellt minskade vid mörka lokaler med ett mer slutet krontäcke. På den lokala skalan kan fluktuerande vatteninnehåll, summerat ljus när laven är blöt, och klorofyll a- innehåll förutsäga lavars tillväxt. Men, på en landskapsskala kan dessa variabler vara för detaljerade. Vi testade detta för två terrestriska, mattlevande lavar och utvecklade en statistisk modell för lavars tillväxt i en så stor klimatgradient som möjligt i norra Skandinavien genom att variera ljus, temperatur och nederbörd. Ljus var den viktigaste faktorn för att nå hög tillväxt på landskapsnivå där en mättnad nåddes vid 40 % öppenhet i skogen, som motsvarade en grundyta på 15 m2 ha -1 i den här studien. Fuktigheten var den näst viktigaste begränsande faktorn och kunde beskrivas väl med nederbörd för en av arterna. Den mest lättanvända faktorn var normaltemperaturen för juli månad, som i sin tur var negativt korrelerad till tillväxt. Det var tydligt att de prediktiva variablerna och deras förutsägande förmåga varierade med olika skalor. Ljus och fukt var begränsande på alla nivåer, speciellt av ljusförhållandena då lavarna är blöta. Detta innebär att tillräckligt höga ljusnivåer under krontäcket är avgörande för lavars tillväxt, speciellt mattlevande lavar. Hydrofila lavar torde bevaras bättre i öppna habitat med tillräckligt långa fuktperioder. Det var tydligt att modeller kan vara betydelsefulla och lättanvända verktyg för att förutsäga lavars responser i en bredd av habitat med olika mikroklimat. Modeller kan därför vara en hjälp för att identifiera lämpliga habitat med optimala tillväxtförhållanden och detta är viktigt för att bevara och sköta lavar och deras habitat.