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The mammalian kidney and reproductive systems both derive from a common embryological origin, the intermediate mesoderm. Abnormal intermediate mesoderm development can result in congenital abnormalities of the urogenital system, yet the molecular mechanisms that govern intermediate mesoderm development are incompletely defined. The spatial and temporal expression of the proteins BMP2 and 4 and their receptor ALK3, in urogenital tissue, suggests a function for BMP-ALK3 signaling in the intermediate mesoderm. It was found that Alk3IM null kidneys display renal hypoplasia, associated with a decrease in kidney size and nephron number. The phenotype of renal hypoplasia in Alk3IM nulls was associated with early decreased number of developing nephron structures and secondary defects in branching morphogenesis. While neither apoptosis nor cell proliferation differed in metanephric mesenchyme cells in Alk3IM nulls, markers of renal progenitor cells were decreased in mutant animals. It was observed that Alk3 expression in the intermediate mesoderm also controls mesonephric tubule number. Alk3IM nulls had fewer mesonephric tubules and fewer derivative Leydig cells. The reduction in Leydig cells resulted in decreased levels in serum testosterone and defects in seminal vesicle formation and fertility. Alk3 expression was also required for normal development of the corpus epididymis. The morphological defects in nephrogenesis were associated with decreased phospho-p38 MAPK expression and in the testis with decreased Phospho-SMAD1/5/8. These results elucidated a requirement for Alk3 signaling in controlling progenitor cells derived from the intermediate mesoderm.

The mammalian kidney and reproductive systems both derive from a common embryological origin, the intermediate mesoderm. Abnormal intermediate mesoderm development can result in congenital abnormalities of the urogenital system, yet the molecular mechanisms that govern intermediate mesoderm development are incompletely defined. The spatial and temporal expression of the proteins BMP2 and 4 and their receptor ALK3, in urogenital tissue, suggests a function for BMP-ALK3 signaling in the intermediate mesoderm. It was found that Alk3IM null kidneys display renal hypoplasia, associated with a decrease in kidney size and nephron number. The phenotype of renal hypoplasia in Alk3IM nulls was associated with early decreased number of developing nephron structures and secondary defects in branching morphogenesis. While neither apoptosis nor cell proliferation differed in metanephric mesenchyme cells in Alk3IM nulls, markers of renal progenitor cells were decreased in mutant animals. It was observed that Alk3 expression in the intermediate mesoderm also controls mesonephric tubule number. Alk3IM nulls had fewer mesonephric tubules and fewer derivative Leydig cells. The reduction in Leydig cells resulted in decreased levels in serum testosterone and defects in seminal vesicle formation and fertility. Alk3 expression was also required for normal development of the corpus epididymis. The morphological defects in nephrogenesis were associated with decreased phospho-p38 MAPK expression and in the testis with decreased Phospho-SMAD1/5/8. These results elucidated a requirement for Alk3 signaling in controlling progenitor cells derived from the intermediate mesoderm.

To date, studies into sex determination and gonadal development have focused on the regulatory mechanisms governing development of the male or female phenotype. However, the formation of the testis and ovary from the bipotential gonad also present a fascinating model of tissue organisation which has been largely overlooked. When seeking to understand tissue organisation during gonadal development, the formation of testis cords takes center stage. However, despite a growing understanding of the cellular events in testis development, a number of key questions about the formation of testis cords remain unanswered. Specifically, I aimed to investigate the role of cell migration in testis organization, and the structure and morphogenesis of testis cords in three dimensions. To address these aims experimentally, I investigated the early morphogenesis of testis cords and the dependence of cord formation on cell migration from the mesonephros. I found that virtually all of the migrating cells express endothelial markers, indicating that endothelial, not peritubular myoid cells underlie the dependence of cord formation on cell migration. Further, disruption of endothelial cell migration and vascular organisation using a blocking antibody to VE-cadherin, also disrupted the development of testis cords. These data reveal that migrating endothelial cells are required for testis cord formation, consistent with increasing evidence of a broader role for vasculature in establishing tissue architecture during organogenesis. To address the question of cord structure and morphogenesis, I developed and applied a novel fluorescence-based three-dimensional modeling approach to show that Sertoli cells coalesce into irregular groups surrounding germ cells, and that these groups are remodeled to form highly regular toroidal loops, joined by a flattened plexus at the dorsal side. This plexus is punctured by blood vessels as they ingress from the mesonephros, and contracts during maturation to form part of the rete testis. Variation in cord number and position demonstrates that cord establishment is not a stereotypic process. However, a tightly regulated modeling mechanism must contribute to uniformity on cord diameter and orientation as these parameters remain consistent across samples of the same age. These data clarify questions of cord structure and organisation, establish that cord formation is a variable process, and demonstrate novel structural features within the network of testis cords. Finally, to investigate an in vivo model where vascularisation and cord formation may be disrupted, I analysed gonads from embryos lacking Cited2. Consistent with a previous study, I found that testis development was delayed in Cited2-/- gonads, but found that despite the reported transcriptional recovery after the delay, testis vascular and cord structure was permanently disrupted. To investigate the defects in cord formation I assayed cell migration and found that migration was not disrupted in XY gonads, or mesonephroi lacking Cited2. However, ectopic cell migration was observed in the XX gonad in a dose-dependent response to loss of functional Cited2 alleles. Correspondingly, the female pathway was initially delayed but rallied for a late recovery, implicating Sf1 in the initiation of ovarian differentiation. These data underscore the fragility of the molecular control of sex determination as absence of Cited2 in the male permanently disrupts testis morphology, whereas in the female, promoters of the male pathway are not sufficiently suppressed. From these studies I construct an integrated model of testis cord formation and conclude that testis cord formation is a novel form of tubulogenesis. This morphogenesis is unique and offers insights into cell and tissue organisation, vascular interactions in organogenesis, and mechanisms of tube formation. Further study of cord formation is likely to lead to a broader understanding of tissue morphogenesis during development.

Au cours des dernières décennies, nous avons progressivement vu augmenter un certain nombre d’anomalies de la fonction de reproduction masculine dans les pays industrialisés. Ces constatations ont fait émerger l’hypothèse selon laquelle certains polluants de notre environnement pourraient altérer le développement du testicule fœtal et ainsi être responsables de ces anomalies. Parmi les composants incriminés se trouvent les phtalates, largement répandus dans l’environnement. Ces composés ont été décrits comme reprotoxiques, ils altèrent le développement de la lignée germinale dans différentes espèces et entraînent une diminution de la production de testostérone chez le rat. Toutefois, très peu de données sont disponibles quant à leurs effets chez l’Homme. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé les effets d’un phtalate, le MEHP, sur le développement du testicule fœtal humain au premier trimestre de la grossesse, dans un modèle de culture organotypique qui permet le maintien des différentes structures de l’organe. Nous avons tout d’abord démontré que le MEHP (10-4M) n’altère pas la production de testostérone du testicule fœtal humain, contrairement aux résultats décrits chez le rat. En revanche, nous avons montré que l’exposition au MEHP entraîne une rapide diminution du nombre de cellules germinales par apoptose. A la suite de ces résultats, nous avons testé l’effet de doses plus faibles de MEHP afin de se placer à des concentrations de phtalates ayant été mesurées dans les liquides biologiques. Nous avons ainsi démontré que les cellules germinales du testicule fœtal humain sont altérées suite à l’exposition à des doses de MEHP de 10-5M. Enfin, dans la 3ème partie de ce travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismes d’action des phtalates. Différentes études, notamment dans le foie, démontrent l’implication des récepteurs nucléaires dans les effets de ces composés. Il nous a donc semblé important de rechercher leur implication dans les effets des phtalates sur le testicule fœtal. Nous avons démontré que LXRα est très certainement impliqué ces effets puisque l’expression des ARNm de ce récepteur est augmentée. Par ailleurs, ce récepteur nucléaire contrôle deux voies métaboliques, la synthèse de cholestérol et la synthèse des acides gras qui semblent toutes deux modulées par les phtalates dans le testicule fœtal humain. Enfin, nous avons montré que l’implication de ces voies métaboliques est commune entre la gonade mâle et la gonade femelle, sans pour autant que l’effet sur les cellules germinales mâles ai pu être mis en évidence dans l’ovaire fœtal. En conclusion, cette étude a contribué à caractériser les effets des phtalates sur la mise en place des fonctions de reproduction chez le fœtus humain. Nous avons également pu mettre en évidence un nouveau mécanisme de ces composés, impliquant la superfamille des récepteurs nucléaires ainsi que la synthèse du cholestérol et des acides gras. / Since the last decades, an increase in several abnormalities of the male reproductive function has been progressively evidenced in industrialized countries. According to these observations, it was hypothesized that exposure to some environmental pollutants may impair the fetal testis development, and therefore be at the origins of those abnormalities. Among incriminated compounds, phthalates are molecules highly produced worldwide. These compound are classified as reprotoxic molecules, as they disrupt the development of the germ cell lineage in different species and lead to a decrease in testosterone production in rat. Nevertheless, very few data are available concerning their effects in human. In this study we analyzed the effects of one phthalate, the MEHP, on the human fetal testis development during the first trimester of pregnancy. It was performed using an organotypic culture system that allows the preservation of the different testis structures. We first demonstrated that MEHP (10-4M) does not affect testosterone production of the human fetal testis, in opposition to the results described in rat. We also have demonstrated that MEHP exposure triggers apoptosis in the fetal germ cells, leading to a quick decrease in the total number of these cells. Following those results, we tested the effects of lower doses of MEHP that are close to the highest doses measured in human biological fluids. We therefore demonstrated that fetal germ cells are altered by exposure to this dose of MEHP (10-5M). Finally, in the third part of this work, we focused on the mechanisms of action of phthalate toxicity. Different studies, mostly in the liver, report the involvement of the nuclear receptor superfamilly in the effect of those compounds. Thus, it seemed important to investigate their implication in the effect of phthalates on the human fetal testis. We demonstrated that LXRα is certainly implicated in these effects as its transcriptional level is increased. Moreover, this nuclear receptor regulates two metabolic pathways: Cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis pathways, that seemed to by both modulated by phthalate exposure in the human fetal testis. We also showed that the modulation of these two metabolic pathways is a common process to both the male and female gonads. Nevertheless, the germ cell decrease we evidenced in the human fetal testis was never observable in the fetal ovary. In conclusion, this work contributed to improve our knowledge about the effects of phthalate exposure on the establishment and the development of the human fetal reproductive system. We also have evidenced a new mechanism of these compounds that involves members of the nuclear receptors superfamilly, as well as cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis.