Previous research indicates an increase in the prevalence of depression around adolescence, especially for females. Research suggests depressogenic cognitions play an essential role in the development of depression and may mediate the relation between risk factors and depression. Research has also shown the family environment, negative life events, and maternal depression are all related to the development of depressogenic cognitions. Additionally, few studies have tested models of depression while measuring both anxiety and depressive symptoms despite the high rates of comorbidity between the two disorders. The current study used path analytic techniques to integrate correlates of depression while accounting for comorbid anxiety symptoms in comprehensive model of depression for early adolescent girls. Participants included 203 girls, aged 9-14, along with their mothers. Participants completed self-report measures of the family environment, cognitive triad, and negative life events. Mothers of participants completed a self-report measure of psychopathology. Participants also completed a semi-structured diagnostic interview, which served as the measure for symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results supported previous literature finding a more depressogenic cognitive triad was significantly associated with higher depressive severity. Family environments, characterized by more cohesive and less conflictual family relationships, more communication, and higher engagement in social/recreational activities, were significantly associated with a more positive cognitive triad. Additionally, more negative life events were significantly associated with a more depressogenic cognitive triad. Both family social/recreational activities and negative life events had significant indirect effects on depression. Results indicated a strong relation between anxiety and depression, with anxiety having a significant positive direct effect on depression. The pathways from maternal depression and anxiety to the cognitive triad, anxiety symptoms to the cognitive triad, as well as family environment variables, maternal depression and anxiety and negative life events to anxiety symptoms were not found to be significant. Results from an exploratory analysis suggest anxiety may moderate the relation between the cognitive triad and depression. Implications of these results, limitations, and recommendations for future research are provided. / text

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Clinical Psychology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

This item was digitized as part of the Million Books Project led by Carnegie Mellon University and supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF). Cornell University coordinated the participation of land-grant and agricultural libraries in providing historical agricultural information for the digitization project; the University of Arizona Libraries, the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and the Office of Arid Lands Studies collaborated in the selection and provision of material for the digitization project.

This item was digitized as part of the Million Books Project led by Carnegie Mellon University and supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF). Cornell University coordinated the participation of land-grant and agricultural libraries in providing historical agricultural information for the digitization project; the University of Arizona Libraries, the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and the Office of Arid Lands Studies collaborated in the selection and provision of material for the digitization project.

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Relational, or indirect, bullying amongst girls has more recently received greater attention from researchers across the globe, in recognition of its potentially devastating psychological effects. Particularly in South Africa, with its unique history of apartheid, racial and gender inequalities and violent struggles amongst marginalized communities to be given the freedom to have a voice, the tendency of girls to „hide‟ their aggression, and to express it in covert ways needs to be understood and addressed. Additionally, in South African schools, many educators do not adequately appreciate the grim reality of girls‟ aggression as an antecedent to serious psychiatric illness. These girls are already coping with the effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which is leaving many of them orphaned and raising younger siblings whilst still children themselves, thereby increasing their vulnerability to psychiatric adjustment difficulties. The present study therefore investigated the prevalence and psychological effects of relational bullying, and explored the developmental trajectory of different types of bullying amongst school-aged South African girls. The sample included 169 learners, from grade One to grade Twelve, in an independent school located in an urban area of KwaZulu-Natal. A self-report questionnaire, including direct questions and projective techniques, was utilized to collect data relating to the nature of girls‟ experiences of bullying, the psychological effects thereof, their friendships and their levels of social, cognitive and moral functioning. The current study showed a 33.5% prevalence rate of bullying victimization amongst the sample. It was hypothesized from a review of the literature that as girls grow older, and their skills in the cognitive, social and moral reasoning domains improve, friendship ties become closer and more important, and they utilize increasingly sophisticated forms of relational aggression. The research findings supported this prediction. In addition, it was found that older girls are increasingly negatively affected by girl-bullying, as reflected in a range of psychologically unhealthy reactions, which may constitute the precursors to psychiatric illness in adulthood. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

A cross-sectional survey design was used to establish the prevalence and form of bullying behaviour in a saturation sample of 385 Grade Eight and Nine female students in a KwaZulu-Natal high school. Relationships between peer relations, self-efficacy, conflict resolution strategies and bullying behaviour were investigated using well established measures with robust psychometric properties. The majority (79%) of students had been involved in bullying behaviour. Both direct and indirect forms of bullying were present. A significant predictive relationship between self-efficacy and peer relations was found (α.001 p<.005); quantity of friends was significant in predicting peer attachment style (Beta=.000 P<.005); level of victimisation predicted peer attachment style (Beta=.018 p<.05); and bullying roles were associated with specific dominant conflict resolution strategies (Victim & Accommodating 12%; Bully & Competing/Avoiding 10%; Bully-Victim & Competing/Avoiding 4%; Bystander & Collaborating 2%; Not bullied & Avoiding 6%). These findings are discussed in the context of the relevant empirical and theoretical literature on bullying and female psychosocial development. While the bully, victim, bully-victim and bystander differed in several important respects, further research is recommended to differentiate these roles in term of social relations, self-efficacy, identity development, psychosocial development and conflict resolution strategies in order to inform anti-bullying interventions within a school setting. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

The dramatic increase in the masculine practice of tattooing among girls in Western societies is an area of interest for feminist researchers and visual culture educators. Girls’ tattoos are perceived as diverse practices of conformity, resistance, reclamation, and empowerment, and/or as contemporary markers of femininity, sexuality, and desire. Eleven adolescent girls with tattoos from the Central Okanagan region of British Columbia were interviewed during a 12 month period in 2007/2008. Discourse analysis was employed as a method to interpret and deconstruct girls’ narratives with respect to understanding why girls have adopted traditional Western male practices of tattooing as expressions of individuality or identity. Secondly, responses were examined with respect to girls’ knowledge of potential risks involved with tattooing. The majority of participants had strong attachments to their relatives and their tattoos signified a desire to maintain that close family relationship. Research findings indicated girls’ mothers were influential in their daughters’ decisions to get tattooed and in the type of image tattooed. Girls were adamant that popular media figures with tattoos and advertisements of models with tattoos could influence or encourage girls to engage in body art. Knowledge of potential risks was learned primarily from tattoo artists and relatives, with infection indicated as the main associated risk. Participants suggested the distribution of pamphlets in school counseling centres could inform students of potential risks and provide information related to safe body art practices. Participants believed societal norms respecting girls’ behaviors and practices were different than those experienced by their mothers. However size, placement, and image of their tattoos, their own biases, and their experiences with older relatives including grandmothers and some fathers indicate that traditional Western attitudes regarding femininity and the female body continue. In spite of this, girls believe that they have the freedom to choose how they enact femininity and assert their individuality, and they believe “if guys can do it, so can girls”. As visual culture educators we need to listen to and respect the voices of girls to achieve a greater understanding of how girls experience and perform gender through their everyday practices within the popular visual culture.