Na presente tese foram preparados poliésteres derivados de dois materiais renováveis o ácido 2,5-furanodicarboxílico (AFD) e a isoidida. Foram também preparados monômeros dihidroxílados para uso em poliesterificações e em reações com diisocianatos contendo um aduto de Diels-Alder (DA) formado pela reação de um grupo furano e uma maleimida (reação entre uma bismaleimida e o álcool furfurílico). Esses diois foram utilizados na preparação de poliésteres e poliuretanos termorreversíveis. A termorreversibilidade dos materiais preparados advém do fato de que os adutos de DA são termorreversíveis (rDA). Portanto, ao aquecer os poliésteres preparados com aduto-DA são originados monômeros difuncionais com grupos furano e/ou maleimida. O produto da rDA pode então ser repolimerizado, mas não via reações de poliesterificação ou isocianato/hidroxila, mas pelo acoplamento furano/maleimida (DA). Por fim uma nova rota para a obtenção de copolímeros aleatórios foi investigada. Essa rota consiste em provocar a rDA de uma mistura de dois homopolímeros distintos obtidos por polimerização em etapas contendo no interior de suas unidades repetitivas adutos de Diels-Alder e em seguida provocar a sua repolimerização via DA para dar origem a um copolímero aleatório. Os materiais foram caracterizados por suas estruturas químicas por Espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), ressonância magnética nuclear de próton (RMN ¹H). Foram feitos ensaios de cromatografia de permeação de gel (GPC), onde notou-se uma massa média numérica e ponderal para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD e também para o poliéster e poliuretano termorreversíveis de aproximadamente 1600 g.mol¹. Nos ensaios de calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) foi obtido Tgs variados para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD indo de 88 a 159ºC, de 80ºC para o poliuretano termorreversível e de 106ºC para o poliéster termorreversível. Para a análise termogravimétrica (TGA) foi observado temperaturas de degradação para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD em torno de 280ºC. Para a análise térmica dinâmico-mecânicas (DMTA) obteve-se Tg\'s em 117, 123 e 120ºC para o poliéster, o poliuretano e o copolímero termorreversíveis. / In this thesis it was prepared polyesters of two renewable monomers, the 2.5-furandicarboxylic acid and isoidide. Dihydroxy monomers were also prepared for use in polysterification and in reactions with diisocyanates, both containing Diels-Alder adduct in the molecule formed by the reaction of a furan group and a maleimide (reaction between bismaleimide and furfuryl alcohol). These diols were used in the preparation of thermoreversible polyesters and polyurethanes. The thermoreversibility of these materials comes from the fact that the DA adducts are thermoreversible (rDA). Therefore, heating these polymers give rise to difunctional monomers with an adduct-DA with furan and/or maleimide functions. The product of the rDA may then be polymerized not via polysterification reactions or isocyanate/hydroxyl, but by furan/maleimide coupling (DA) restoring the DA adduct. Finaly a new route to obtain random copolymers was investigated. This route consists in the rDA of a mixture of two different homopolymers obtained by polymerization in stages containing adducts producing monomers with furan and maleimide functions that can be polymerization via DA reaction to give a random copolymer. The materials were characterized by their chemical structures by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance of proton (¹H-NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), experiments were made, where it was noticed a number and weight average mass for the polyesters obtained from the AFD and also for the thermoreversible polyester and polyurethane 1600 gmol¹. In differential scanning calorimetry tests (DSC) was obtained Tg\'s for various polyesters obtained from the AFD ranging from 88 to 159°C, 80°C for the thermoreversible polyurethane and 106°C for the thermoreversible polyester. For the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was observed degradation temperatures for the polyesters obtained from the AFD around 280°C. For dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) Tg was obtained in 117, 123 and 120°C for polyester, polyurethane and copolymer thermoreversible.

Na presente tese foram preparados poliésteres derivados de dois materiais renováveis o ácido 2,5-furanodicarboxílico (AFD) e a isoidida. Foram também preparados monômeros dihidroxílados para uso em poliesterificações e em reações com diisocianatos contendo um aduto de Diels-Alder (DA) formado pela reação de um grupo furano e uma maleimida (reação entre uma bismaleimida e o álcool furfurílico). Esses diois foram utilizados na preparação de poliésteres e poliuretanos termorreversíveis. A termorreversibilidade dos materiais preparados advém do fato de que os adutos de DA são termorreversíveis (rDA). Portanto, ao aquecer os poliésteres preparados com aduto-DA são originados monômeros difuncionais com grupos furano e/ou maleimida. O produto da rDA pode então ser repolimerizado, mas não via reações de poliesterificação ou isocianato/hidroxila, mas pelo acoplamento furano/maleimida (DA). Por fim uma nova rota para a obtenção de copolímeros aleatórios foi investigada. Essa rota consiste em provocar a rDA de uma mistura de dois homopolímeros distintos obtidos por polimerização em etapas contendo no interior de suas unidades repetitivas adutos de Diels-Alder e em seguida provocar a sua repolimerização via DA para dar origem a um copolímero aleatório. Os materiais foram caracterizados por suas estruturas químicas por Espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), ressonância magnética nuclear de próton (RMN ¹H). Foram feitos ensaios de cromatografia de permeação de gel (GPC), onde notou-se uma massa média numérica e ponderal para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD e também para o poliéster e poliuretano termorreversíveis de aproximadamente 1600 g.mol¹. Nos ensaios de calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) foi obtido Tgs variados para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD indo de 88 a 159ºC, de 80ºC para o poliuretano termorreversível e de 106ºC para o poliéster termorreversível. Para a análise termogravimétrica (TGA) foi observado temperaturas de degradação para os poliésteres obtidos a partir do AFD em torno de 280ºC. Para a análise térmica dinâmico-mecânicas (DMTA) obteve-se Tg\'s em 117, 123 e 120ºC para o poliéster, o poliuretano e o copolímero termorreversíveis. / In this thesis it was prepared polyesters of two renewable monomers, the 2.5-furandicarboxylic acid and isoidide. Dihydroxy monomers were also prepared for use in polysterification and in reactions with diisocyanates, both containing Diels-Alder adduct in the molecule formed by the reaction of a furan group and a maleimide (reaction between bismaleimide and furfuryl alcohol). These diols were used in the preparation of thermoreversible polyesters and polyurethanes. The thermoreversibility of these materials comes from the fact that the DA adducts are thermoreversible (rDA). Therefore, heating these polymers give rise to difunctional monomers with an adduct-DA with furan and/or maleimide functions. The product of the rDA may then be polymerized not via polysterification reactions or isocyanate/hydroxyl, but by furan/maleimide coupling (DA) restoring the DA adduct. Finaly a new route to obtain random copolymers was investigated. This route consists in the rDA of a mixture of two different homopolymers obtained by polymerization in stages containing adducts producing monomers with furan and maleimide functions that can be polymerization via DA reaction to give a random copolymer. The materials were characterized by their chemical structures by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance of proton (¹H-NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), experiments were made, where it was noticed a number and weight average mass for the polyesters obtained from the AFD and also for the thermoreversible polyester and polyurethane 1600 gmol¹. In differential scanning calorimetry tests (DSC) was obtained Tg\'s for various polyesters obtained from the AFD ranging from 88 to 159°C, 80°C for the thermoreversible polyurethane and 106°C for the thermoreversible polyester. For the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was observed degradation temperatures for the polyesters obtained from the AFD around 280°C. For dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) Tg was obtained in 117, 123 and 120°C for polyester, polyurethane and copolymer thermoreversible.

The phase diagrams for the thermoreversible gelation of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) in dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and 4-chlorophenol (4CP) were constructed over broad temperature and concentration ranges, revealing that PEEK is capable of dissolving and forming gels in DCA and 4CP up to a weight fraction of 25 wt.%. Highly porous aerogels of PEEK were prepared through simple solvent exchange and solvent removal of the PEEK/DCA or PEEK/4CP gels. Solvent removal utilized freeze-drying (sublimation) methods or supercritical CO2 drying methods. Varying the weight fraction of PEEK dissolved in solution determined PEEK aerogel density. Mechanical properties (in compression) were shown to improve with increasing density, resulting in equivalent compressive moduli at comparable density regardless of preparation method (concentration variation, gelation solvent, solvent removal method, or annealing parameters). Additionally, density-matched aerogels from various MW PEEK showed a correlation between increasing MW and increasing compressive modulus. Contact angle and contact angle hysteresis revealed that PEEK aerogels have a high contact angle, exceeding the conditions necessary to be classified as superhydrophobic materials. PEEK aerogel contact angle decreases with increasing density and a very low contact angle hysteresis that increases with increasing density, regardless of gelation solvent or drying method. Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) contrast-matching experiments were used to elucidate the morphological origin of scattering features, wherein it was determined that the origin of the scattering feature present in the small angle scattering region was stacked crystalline lamella. Ultra-small angle X-ray scattering (USAXS)/SAXS/Wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) was then used to probe the hierarchical nanostructure of PEEK aerogels across a broad range of length scales. The Unified Fit Model was used to extract structural information, which was then used to determine the specific surface areas of PEEK aerogels. Regardless of gelation solvent, gel concentration, or solvent removal method, all PEEK aerogels display high surface areas as determined by SAXS and high surface areas as determined by nitrogen adsorption methods. Surface area values determined from SAXS data were consistently higher than that measured directly using nitrogen adsorption, suggesting that pore densification diminishes the accessible aerogel surface area. / Ph. D. / Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) is a semicrystalline polymer with high temperature thermal transitions and excellent mechanical strength, making it an ideal candidate for many high-performance polymer applications. When PEEK is dissolved in particular solvents, it will form a 3-dimensional network where crystalline polymer is the cross-linking unit of the network. Careful solvent removal does not significantly perturb the gel network structure and produces a low-density aerogel. This work details the first reported instance of the monolithic gelation of PEEK and the first examples of PEEK aerogels. The nanostructure of these gels and aerogels is fully characterized to relate structural features to physical properties such as mechanical stiffness and wettability.

O estudo realizado compreendeu a avaliação pré-clínica e clínica de uma forma farmacêutica de liberação sustentada contendo extrato padronizado de própolis EPP-AF para o tratamento de queimaduras. Utilizamos um polímero com características termorreversíveis que possibilitaram a obtenção de um produto que se mantém na forma líquida quando a baixas temperaturas e geleifica in situ. A forma farmacêutica proposta visa maior comodidade e adesão do paciente, obtenção de um tecido epitelial organizado e menor tempo para a cicatrização da área. Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a atividade antimicrobiana in vitro, do extrato de própolis e dos géis obtidos, através da técnica de difusão em agar e também através do método de microdiluição em microplacas contendo caldo de enriquecimento e o revelador trifeniltetrazólio, frente aos microrganismos S. aureus, M. luteus e P. aeruginosa. O potencial mutagênico foi estudado em modelo experimental utilizando micronúcleos de sangue periférico de ratos wistar. A histologia do tecido formado em lesão induzida com a utilização de um punch para biópsia e a eficácia do produto em pacientes queimados também foram objeto deste estudo. As áreas doadoras foram utilizadas como modelos experimentais. Os resultados demonstraram que o extrato de própolis apresentou atividade frente aos microrganismos pesquisados sendo que os géis não se difundiram em disco. Em microdiluição, o modelo utilizado para estudo da atividade antimicrobiana não foi adequado ao microrganismo M. luteus, mas foi possível a obtenção do CIM para S. aureus e P. aeruginosa, que foram respectivamente, 50 ug/mL e 200 ug/mL. O produto não apresentou potencial genotóxico nos tratamentos agudo, sub-agudo e crônico. A pesquisa clínica demonstrou que o gel termorreversível contendo extrato padronizado de própolis 3,6%p/v apresentou tempo de cicatrização semelhante à pomada contendo nitrofurazona (furacin®), tratamento referência utilizado na Unidade de Queimados do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. / The present paper examines the pre-clinical and clinical evaluation of a pharmaceutical form that provides sustained delivery of a formulation containing standardized propolis extract EPP AF to the treatment of burn wounds. There has been used a polymer with thermoreversible characteristics which made possible the obtaintion of a product that maintains its liquid state in low temperatures and provides in situ gelling property. The proposed pharmaceutical form intends to enhance patients comfort and acceptance, to obtain a histological well-organized skin tissue and to reduce wound healing time. This study evaluated in vitro the antimicrobial activity of propolis extract and obtained gels using the agar-diffusion method and also a broth microdilution method with microdillution in microplates containing serially diluted antimicrobial and triphenilthetrazolium agent, against microorganisms S. aureus, M. luteus e P. aeruginosa, the mutagenic potential using micronuclei of peripheral blood Wistar rats experimental models, the histology of neo-formed tissue induced by lesions done with a punch and the effectiveness of the products in burn patients, using skin-grafting donnor sites like experimental models. The results show that propolis extract has activity against the listed microorganisms and that the gels did not spread into agar medium plate. In the microdilution method, the used model for the antimicrobial activity study is not adequate to the microorganism M. luteus, but it was possible for the obtention of CIM to S. aureus e P. aeruginosa, which were, respectively, 50 ug/mL e 200 ug/mL. The product did not show genotoxic potential to acute, subacute and chronic treatments. The clinical research show that the thermoreversible gel formulation containing standardized propolis extract 3,6%p/v presented wound healing time similar to the reference treatment used in the Burn Victims Unity witch is nitrofurazone cream (furacin®).

O estudo realizado compreendeu a avaliação pré-clínica e clínica de uma forma farmacêutica de liberação sustentada contendo extrato padronizado de própolis EPP-AF para o tratamento de queimaduras. Utilizamos um polímero com características termorreversíveis que possibilitaram a obtenção de um produto que se mantém na forma líquida quando a baixas temperaturas e geleifica in situ. A forma farmacêutica proposta visa maior comodidade e adesão do paciente, obtenção de um tecido epitelial organizado e menor tempo para a cicatrização da área. Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a atividade antimicrobiana in vitro, do extrato de própolis e dos géis obtidos, através da técnica de difusão em agar e também através do método de microdiluição em microplacas contendo caldo de enriquecimento e o revelador trifeniltetrazólio, frente aos microrganismos S. aureus, M. luteus e P. aeruginosa. O potencial mutagênico foi estudado em modelo experimental utilizando micronúcleos de sangue periférico de ratos wistar. A histologia do tecido formado em lesão induzida com a utilização de um punch para biópsia e a eficácia do produto em pacientes queimados também foram objeto deste estudo. As áreas doadoras foram utilizadas como modelos experimentais. Os resultados demonstraram que o extrato de própolis apresentou atividade frente aos microrganismos pesquisados sendo que os géis não se difundiram em disco. Em microdiluição, o modelo utilizado para estudo da atividade antimicrobiana não foi adequado ao microrganismo M. luteus, mas foi possível a obtenção do CIM para S. aureus e P. aeruginosa, que foram respectivamente, 50 ug/mL e 200 ug/mL. O produto não apresentou potencial genotóxico nos tratamentos agudo, sub-agudo e crônico. A pesquisa clínica demonstrou que o gel termorreversível contendo extrato padronizado de própolis 3,6%p/v apresentou tempo de cicatrização semelhante à pomada contendo nitrofurazona (furacin®), tratamento referência utilizado na Unidade de Queimados do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. / The present paper examines the pre-clinical and clinical evaluation of a pharmaceutical form that provides sustained delivery of a formulation containing standardized propolis extract EPP AF to the treatment of burn wounds. There has been used a polymer with thermoreversible characteristics which made possible the obtaintion of a product that maintains its liquid state in low temperatures and provides in situ gelling property. The proposed pharmaceutical form intends to enhance patients comfort and acceptance, to obtain a histological well-organized skin tissue and to reduce wound healing time. This study evaluated in vitro the antimicrobial activity of propolis extract and obtained gels using the agar-diffusion method and also a broth microdilution method with microdillution in microplates containing serially diluted antimicrobial and triphenilthetrazolium agent, against microorganisms S. aureus, M. luteus e P. aeruginosa, the mutagenic potential using micronuclei of peripheral blood Wistar rats experimental models, the histology of neo-formed tissue induced by lesions done with a punch and the effectiveness of the products in burn patients, using skin-grafting donnor sites like experimental models. The results show that propolis extract has activity against the listed microorganisms and that the gels did not spread into agar medium plate. In the microdilution method, the used model for the antimicrobial activity study is not adequate to the microorganism M. luteus, but it was possible for the obtention of CIM to S. aureus e P. aeruginosa, which were, respectively, 50 ug/mL e 200 ug/mL. The product did not show genotoxic potential to acute, subacute and chronic treatments. The clinical research show that the thermoreversible gel formulation containing standardized propolis extract 3,6%p/v presented wound healing time similar to the reference treatment used in the Burn Victims Unity witch is nitrofurazone cream (furacin®).

Les travaux de recherche réalisés, dans le cadre de la préparation de cette thèse ont pour objectif l’élaboration de nouveaux réseaux thermoréversibles biodégradables à base de polyglycolide (PGA) et d’hydrogels à base de polylactide (PLA) modifiés chimiquement au moyen du noyau furanique et du cycle maléimide. La réticulation du PGA, en suivant deux stratégies, en vue d’élaborer des réseaux thermoréversibles et biodégradables via la réaction de Diels-Alder a fait l’objet de la première partie de ce travail. Le but était entre autres de valoriser le PGA en conduisant à des structures réticulées avec des propriétés mécaniques requises tout en améliorant ses propriétés de stabilité. Des réseaux hybrides de PLA/PEG et PLA/PHEMA ont été ensuite synthétisés en phase fondu en adoptant la réaction de Diels-Alder comme mécanisme de réticulation. Une fois obtenus, leur mise au contact de l’eau conduit à la formation d’hydrogels. Les analyses structurales menées par RMN ont permis de confirmer la formation des structures attendues. La thermoréversibilité des réseaux obtenus a été montrée par des analyses rhéologiques. La morphologie des gels avant et après gonflement a été analysée par Microscopie Electronique à balayage. La dégradabilité des réseaux préparés a été examinée selon deux modes : hydrolytique et par les microorganismes en milieu aérobie. / The research conducted for the preparation of this thesis aims to develop new thermoreversible and biodegradable polyglycolic-acid (PGA) based networks and polylactic-acid (PLA) based hydrogels, from polymers chemically modified by means of furanic, and maleimide cycle. The cross-linking of PGA to develop thermoreversible and biodegradable networks via the Diels-Alder reaction has been done by following two strategies and was the first part of this work. The aim was, among other things, to enhance the PGA by leading to reticulated structures with required mechanical properties while improving its stability properties. Hybrid networks of PLA / PEG and PLA / PHEMA were then synthesized in the melt by adopting the Diels-Alder reaction as a crosslinking mechanism. Once obtained, their contact with water leads to the formation of hydrogels. NMR structural analyzes confirmed the formation of expected structures. The thermoreversibility of the obtained networks has been shown by rheological analyzes. The morphology of the gels before and after swelling was analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy. The degradability of prepared networks was examined in two modes: hydrolytic and aerobic by microorganisms.

Dans le contexte actuel de constante amélioration des propriétés des matériaux polymères et de l’optimisation de leur impact environnemental, la recherche se tourne de plus en plus vers les polymères biosourcés et biodégradables. Le travail de cette thèse consiste en la synthèse et le développement de nouveaux réseaux thermoréversibles à base d’acide polylactique (PLA). Cette thermo-réversibilité est assurée grâce à des interactions dynamiques comme les liaisons hydrogène et la réaction réversible de Diels-Alder. Une biomolécule, le gluthation, a été conjuguée au polymère et utilisée comme générateur de liaisons hydrogène. Ces travaux ont permis la réalisation d’une large gamme de matériaux avec des propriétés uniques comme l’autoréparation et des températures de réversibilité très variées, approchant pour certains échantillons, celle du corps humain / In the current context to constantly improve the properties of polymer materials as well as their environmental impact, the research on polymers is increasingly focused on biobased and biodegradable polymers. The aim of this work consists on the synthesis and development of new polylactic acid-based thermoreversible networks. This thermoreversible character is ensured thanks to dynamic interactions such as hydrogen bonds and the reversible Diels-Alder reaction. In a second time, a biomolecule was conjugated to the polymer and was used as a hydrogen bonds generator. This allowed the production of a wide range of materials with varied reversibility temperatures and unique properties such as self-healing ability. For some samples, the reversibility temperatures were approaching the human body temperature

A celulose é o principal polímero derivado de fonte renovável de uso industrial tanto em termos de volume como em número de aplicações. A celulose é comercializada na forma de polpa, que se trata de uma commodity cuja principal aplicação é a indústria de papel e de derivados de celulose, tais como os seus éteres e ésteres. Com o advento das nanoceluloses, que podem ser obtidas diretamente da polpa química, se observa um expressivo aumento no interesse por esses materiais. A modificação superficial tanto das fibras (polpa) como das microfibrilas é de grande interesse, pois podem permitir a ampliação do uso desses materiais uma vez que suas propriedades poderiam ser modificadas. O desenvolvimento de métodos de modificação em meio aquoso da celulose em suspensão é de grande interesse em especial se realizado com o uso de agentes sustentáveis em contexto de química verde. Este trabalho visou a modificação da polpa de celulose por duas vias: química e física, realizadas inteiramente em meio aquoso e utilizando materiais de caráter renováveis. A modificação física da fibra de celulose \"never-dried\" foi feita pelo método de auto-montagem (Layer-by-Layer) com o par de polieletrólito quitosana / carboximetilcelulose (CH / CMC) em meio aquoso. Fibras modificadas foram submetidas à analise morfológica (MEV e microscopia confocal no método de absorção de dois fótons e EDS), propriedade mecânica (módulo elástico e limite de resistência à tração) e potencial zeta. O complexo CH / CMC depositado sobre as fibras apresentou uma espessura de aproximadamente 50 nm por camada e um aumento de aproximadamente 170% no limite de resistência a tração das folhas produzidos a partir das fibras, demonstrando uma forte interação fibra/polieletrólitos. Através da técnica de absorção de dois fótons foi possível identificar a deposição das camadas fora e dentro das fibras sem o uso de cromóforo. A modificação química da nanofibra de celulose foi feita pela enxertia de grupamentos furânicos na superfície da fibra, oxidada. Em seguida de uma reação com uma bismaleimida através da reação de \"click\" de Diels-Alder em meio aquoso. Os géis foram caracterizados por meio da técnica de calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC) e viscosimetria, com os quais pode-se verificar o efeito da termorreversibilidade uma vez que a 65°C ocorre gelificação do sistema e 95°C ocorre reversão do gel como resultado das reações DA e retro Diels-Alder. As modificações das fibras e nanofibras de celulose em meio aquoso foram bem-sucedidas, o que pode impulsionar o uso da polpa de celulose em novas aplicações originais como artefatos de papel fortes e géis biocompatíveis, visando a estratégia green chemistry. / Cellulose is the main polymer derived from renewable sources of industrial use, in terms of volume and number of applications. Cellulose is marketed in the pulp form, which is a commodity whose main application is the paper industry and derived from pulp, such as its ethers and esters. The advent of nanocelluloses, which can be obtained directly from the chemical pulp, there is an expressive increase in these materials. The superficial modification in fibers (pulp) and microfibrils is great interest, since they can allow the amplification of the use of these materials since their properties could be modified. The development of methods for modification of cellulose in aqueous suspension is of particular interest especially if carried out with sustainable agents in the context of green chemistry. This work aimed at the modification of the cellulose pulp by two routes: chemistry and physics, performed entirely in aqueous medium and using renewable character materials. The physical modification of the \"never-dried\" cellulose fiber was done by the self-assembly method (Layer-by-Layer) with the polyelectrolyte pair chitosan / carboxymethylcellulose (CH / CMC) in aqueous medium. Modified fibers were subjected to morphological analysis (SEM and confocal microscopy in two-photon absorption technique and EDS), mechanical properties (elastic modulus and tensile strength) and zeta potential. The CH / CMC complex deposited under the fibers had a thickness of approximately 50 nm per layer and an increase of approximately 170% in the tensile strength of the sheets in compare of unmodified fibers sheets, showing a strong interaction between fiber and polyelectrolyte. Through the technique of two-photon adsorption, it was possible to identify the layers deposition outside and inside the fibers without the use of chromophore. The chemical modification of the cellulose nanofiber was made by the grafting of furanic groups on the surface of the oxidized fiber. Following by reaction with a bismaleimide through the \"click\" reaction of Diels-Alder in aqueous medium. The thermoreversible hydrogels were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and viscosimetry, which the effect of thermoreversibility can be verified at 65 °C when the gelation of the system occurs and 95 °C gel reversion occurs because of DA and retro Diels-Alder reactions. Modifications of cellulose fibers and nanofibers in aqueous media have been successful, which may increase the use of cellulose pulp in novel applications such as strong paper artifacts and biocompatible gels, targeting the green chemistry strategy.

Les problématiques liées aux surfaces et interfaces prennent de plus en plus d’importance dans de nombreux secteurs, aussi bien académiques qu’industriels. Dans de nombreuses applications, il n’est parfois pas nécessaire de conférer la réactivité désirée à la totalité du volume du matériau : une surface aux propriétés bien contrôlées peut suffire.Lieu de discontinuité des propriétés d’un matériau, la surface possède un comportement qui lui est propre, généralement apporté par une étape de fonctionnalisation. Dans ce contexte, ce travail de thèse vise à élaborer des surfaces polymères aux propriétés thermoréversibles, de comprendre les mécanismes réactionnels mis en jeu aux interfaces et de proposer de nouvelles surfaces aux pouvoirs adhésifs réversibles.Il existe de nombreuses techniques permettant de modifier la surface des matériaux. La littérature est abondante et variée, on y trouve notamment des techniques visant à introduire des groupements fonctionnels à la surface d’un substrat. Parmi elles, la polymérisation plasma est une technique de dépôt chimique en phase vapeur, sans solvant, permettant le dépôt de films minces de polymères aux propriétés physico-chimiques contrôlées sur une grande variété de matériaux. Le plasma, état très excité de la matière, est généré grâce à un champ électromagnétique. C’est cette technique de fonctionnalisation qui a été choisie dans ce travail de thèse dans le but de déposer un film mince de polymère possédant des propriétés thermoréversibles sur divers substrats.Les propriétés de thermoréversibilité sont apportées grâce à la présence de groupements furanes, capables de réagir avec un diénophile par une réaction de Diels-Alder (DA). Cette réaction, dite « click », entre un diène et un diénophile a été décrite pour la première fois en 1928 par Otto Diels et Kurt Alder, et fut à l’origine de l’obtention de leur Prix Nobel en 1950. Dans la littérature, les études sur la réaction de DA sont majoritairement réalisées en solution voire sur des matériaux massifs. Cette chimie a été beaucoup moins étudiée sur/dans des films minces, où la notion de confinement prend toute son importance. C’est dans ce contexte que se posent ces travaux de thèse.Dans un premier temps, une étude expérimentale approfondie sur la réactivité de DA (étude cinétique et thermodynamique) a été réalisée. Des polymères plasma ayant des propriétés physico-chimiques variées ont été synthétisés et un couple diène/diénophile modèle, le furane présent dans le polymère plasma et l’anhydride maléique en solution, a été choisi. La compréhension de la réactivité interfaciale de DA sur des polymères plasma constitue la première grande partie de cette thèse. Diverses méthodes de caractérisation des propriétés du film mince fonctionnel (spectroscopie infrarouge, spectrométrie photo-électronique X, mesures d’angle de contact, mesures par microbalance à cristal de quartz avec dissipation, microscopie à force atomique et ellipsométrie) ont été utilisées pour confirmer dans un premier temps la faisabilité du procédé de fonctionnalisation basé sur la polymérisation plasma puis de quantifier la réactivité interfaciale de DA. Dans une seconde partie, la méthodologie développée a été élargie à la compréhension de la réactivité interfaciale de DA et rétro-DA mettant en jeu un autre couple diène/diénophile, à savoir le furane (toujours greffé sur le polymère plasma) et le maléimide (en solution). Enfin, le greffage du maléimide sur un substrat a permis de s’interroger sur la faisabilité d’une adhésion covalente réversible, à l’échelle moléculaire mais aussi macroscopique, entre deux substrats solides fonctionnalisés, l’un avec des groupements furanes, l’autre avec des groupements maléimides. [...] / Should we adapt to materials or can we modify materials to obtain what we want and what we need? Since the beginning of humanity, natural materials (stone, wood, etc.) have allowed civilizations to develop. Thanks to the increase of knowledge in the field of materials and to the development of more and more sophisticated fabrication processes, civilizations have also allowed the development of materials such as metal alloys, ceramics and, more recently, synthetic polymers. Since the second-half of the 20th century, researchers and engineers have found interest in responsive materials and particularly responsive polymers, able to adapt to their surrounding environment such as the mostly studied poly(N-isopropylacrylamine). The number of studies to design new smart materials keeps increasing because they play an important role in the development of advanced technologies. Today, we can find smart materials in all areas of activity.According to the targeted application, different stimuli are considered and can be classified amongchemical or physical stimuli.Recently, chemical stimuli have been studied for various applications, such as the elaboration of pH-stimuli responsive materials to control drug delivery and separation processes. The presence of specific molecules, for instance containing polar groups or able to form hydrogen bonds, can also modify the properties of materials and may be used to induce self-healing processes. Biomolecules may also provide chemical signals for the selective conjugation of proteins or sugars. Besides, physical stimuli have also gained interest because they can be remotely applied. Indeed, electro- or magneto-active polymers respond to an applied electric or magnetic field by changing their size or shape for instance. They are used to elaborate sensors, robotic muscles, to store data and in nanomagnetic materials for various biomedical applications. Photo-sensitive polymers can change their physicochemical properties in response to light irradiation at a given wavelength and intensity. The photoresponsive polymers are broadly used in nano- or bio-technology, such as for bio-patterning and photo-triggered drug delivery. Another highly-studied physical stimulus consists in the variation of the environmental temperature. This method is used for drug delivery, in liquid chromatography to vary the power of separation without changing the column and/or the solvent composition or to elaborate self-healing materials (composites) thanks to weak (H-bonds) or covalent interactions forinstance.In the former examples, the whole composition of the system is usually specifically formulated to react to environmental conditions, although many phenomena locally occur at the surface of the material. This strategy is thus economically non-viable because only few percents of the material volume are exploited for their smart properties. Consequently, industrial renewal can be stimulated by the fabrication of stimuli-responsive coatings that could cover any material, preserving the characteristics of the bulk material and limiting the cost of these additional smart properties. [...]

L'utilisation de matériaux renouvelables est considérée comme l'un des points clés du développement durable. Les glucides sont facilement biodégradables et ont tendance à se dégrader dans les environnements biologiquement actifs. L'hémicellulose (HC) est l'un des polysaccharides les plus courants, représentant environ 20 à 35% de la biomasse lignocellulosique, et n'a pas encore trouvé sa place dans de larges applications industrielles comme la cellulose, autre ressource forestière. L'hémicellulose est un hétéro-polysaccharide. C'est aussi un substitut vert pour les polyols issus du pétrole ainsi qu'un substitut non alimentaire des polyols d'amidon. Les objectifs de ce projet sont le développement d'une stratégie optimisée pour l'extraction de l'hémicellulose et son utilisation dans les biomatériaux à forte valeur ajoutée. L'extraction de l'hémicellulose aurait un grand potentiel comme matière première de la nouvelle bio-économie. Pour étendre ses applications au domaine porteur des hydrogels, comme aux revêtements et adhésifs sensibles aux stimuli, des réseaux de polymères ou des systèmes de relargage de médicaments, les propriétés de l'hémicellulose ont été modifiées en introduisant sur sa chaîne principale des groupes réactifs pour le rendre réticulable réversiblement par la réaction de Diels-Alder. Par cette approche, le potentiel de remplacement des matières premières dérivées du pétrole par des ressources renouvelables pour la production de matériaux polymères biodégradables est important du point de vue sociétal et environnemental. / The increased use of renewable materials is considered as one of the key issue of the sustainable development. Carbohydrates are readily biodegradable and tend to degrade in biologically active environments. Hemicelluloses (HC) are one of the most common polysaccharides next to cellulose and chitin, representing about 20-35% of lignocellulosic biomass, and have not yet found broad industrial applications as does cellulose. Hemicellulose is a hetero-polysaccharide and a green substitute for petroleum based polyols and is a non-food-based substitute for starch polyols. The aims of this project are to develop an optimized strategy for the extraction of hemicellulose and the use of the extracted hemicellulose in value-added biomaterials. The extraction of hemicellulose would have great potential to supply raw materials for the new bio-economy. To expand its applications to the field of stimuli-responsive hydrogels, coating and adhesives, polymer networks, as well as drug-delivery systems, the properties of hemicellulose were functionalized by introducing reactive groups onto its main chain to reversibly crosslink it by the Diels-Alder reaction. Hemicellulose based materials were prepared and characterized for their suitable application. Finally, the worldwide potential demand for replacing petroleum-derived raw materials by renewable resources in the production of valuable biodegradable polymeric materials is significant from both social and environmental viewpoints fuel and will predominate in the coming periods.