Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of participation in a small group-based perceptual-motor training programme on the gross motor and visual-motor integration skills of children who show signs of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Two physical education teachers selected 22 children for assessment as potential participants for this study. The Movement ABC (M-ABC) was then administered to this group and the eight children who scored the lowest were invited to volunteer for this study. These children all volunteered and then completed the assessment of their visual-motor integration skills as measured by the Developmental Test of Visual Perception (DTVP-2). The study followed an evaluative case study design in which changes in the gross motor and visual-motor integration skills of each participant were reported and interpreted individually. The six-week intervention programme was focused on developing the perceptual-motor link between throwing, catching and balancing skills with challenges to visual skills development, especially eye-hand coordination. A comparison of pre-test, post-test and retention test scores in the M-ABC revealed that the programme had a positive effect on six of the children. The results for the seventh child were inconsistent on each test occasion, leading to the conclusion that he may have a co-morbid disorder related to attention. Improvements in static balance were noted and some children also experienced improvements in their ball skills (aiming and coincident timing) which brings the researcher to the conclusion that the programme was effective for gross motor development. DTVP-2 results showed improvements in eye-hand coordination in five of the seven children. According to the VMI quotient score, only one child improved, one deteriorated and the rest showed no change which brings the researcher to the conclusion that the intervention programme was not effective for visual-motor integration. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om die impak te bepaal van deelname in „n klein-groep gebaseerde perseptueel-motoriese oefenprogram op die groot motoriese en visueel-motoriese integrasievaardighede van kinders met tekens van die Ontwikkelingskoördinasie-afwyking (DCD). Twee Lewensoriëntering-onderwysers het 22 kinders geïdentifiseer vir assessering as potensiële deelnemers aan die studie. Hierdie groep het die Beweging-ABC toets (M-ABC) ondergaan en die agt deelnemers met die laagste uitslae is uitgenooi om aan die studie deel te neem. Hierdie agt kinders het ingestem en daarna is die assessering voltooi deur hulle visueel-motoriese integrasievaardighede te meet deur middel van die Ontwikkelingstoets vir Visuele Persepsie (DTVP-2). Die studie het „n evaluerende gevallestudie-ontwerp gevolg waarin die veranderings tussen die groot motoriese en visueel-motoriese integrasievaardighede van elke deelnemer individueel geïnterpreteer en gerapporteer is. Die ses week-intervensieprogram het gefokus op die ontwikkeling van die perseptueel-motoriese skakel tussen gooi-, vang- en balans-vaardighede met uitdagings vir die ontwikkeling van visuele vaardighede, veral oog-hand koördinasie. „n Vergelyking tussen die voor-, na- en opvolgtoetse van die M-ABC se toetstellings het getoon dat die program „n positiewe effek op ses van die kinders se groot motoriese vaardighede gehad het. Die uitslag van die sewende kind was teenstrydig tydens elke toetsgeleentheid en dit het gelei tot die gevolgtrekking dat hy moontlik aan „n addisionele afwyking mag ly wat verband hou met „n aandagprobleem. Verbeterings in statiese balans is waargeneem en sommige kinders het ook „n verbetering in balvaardighede getoon (akkuraatheid en reaksietyd). Volgens die DTVP-2 resultate was daar verbeterings in oog-hand koördinasie by vyf van die sewe kinders. Volgens die VMI-kwosiënttelling het slegs een kind verbeter, een het versleg en die ander vyf het geen verandering getoon nie. Die navorser kom dus tot die gevolgtrekking dat die intervensieprogram nie effektief is vir visueel-motoriese integrasie nie.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science)-- University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a perceptual-motor training programme on the coincident anticipation timing and batting performance of university club cricket players. The intervention programme focused on developing players‟ visual attention and concentration. Vickers‟ (2007) Three-Step Decision Training Model was used to structure the training sessions. The study followed a repeated measures experimental design with three groups (experimental, placebo, and control) formed by volunteers from a university club cricket team. The independent variable was a four-week training programme. The dependent variables were coincident anticipation timing and performance on a cricket batting test. Subjects were pre- and post-tested with retention tests occurring after a set period of “no training” following the post-tests. Differences between groups were compared using Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA by Ranks Tests. Differences within each group were compared using multiple Mann-Whitney U-Tests. No significant improvements were observed in the experimental group‟s coincident anticipation timing and batting performance. Although neither coincident anticipation timing nor batting performance significantly improved, further research into the use of Vickers‟ (2007) Model to enhance sport performance is recommended. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die uitwerking van ʼn perseptueel-motoriese opleidingsprogram op die samevallende vooruittydsberekening (“coincident anticipation timing”) en kolfprestasie van universiteitsklubkrieketspelers te bepaal. Die klem van die intervensieprogram het op die ontwikkeling van spelers se visuele aandag en konsentrasie geval. Die opleidingsessies is volgens Vickers (2007) se drieledige model vir besluitnemingsopleiding saamgestel. Die studie het ʼn eksperimentele ontwerp van herhaalde metings op drie groepe (eksperimenteel, plasebo en kontrole) van ʼn universiteitsklubkrieketspan toegepas. Die onafhanklike veranderlike was ʼn vier weke lange opleidingsprogram. Die afhanklike veranderlikes was samevallende vooruittydsberekening, en prestasie in ʼn krieketkolftoets. Proefpersone het voor en net ná die opleiding toetse ondergaan, sowel as behoudtoetse drie weke ná die na-opleidingstoetse. Verskille tussen groepe is met behulp van rangtoetse uit Kruskal-Wallis se variansie-analisemodel (ANOVA) bepaal, terwyl verskille binne groepe met veelvuldige Mann-Whitney-U-toetse vergelyk is. Geen beduidende verbetering is in die eksperimentele groep se samevallende vooruittydsberekening of kolfprestasie waargeneem nie. Hoewel nóg samevallende vooruittydsberekening nóg kolfprestasie aansienlik verbeter het, word verdere navorsing oor die gebruik van Vickers (2007) se model vir die verbetering van sportprestasie aanbeveel.

Thesis (M Sport Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Falling is a common occurrence and one of the most serious problems in the elderly population (65 years and older). Falls account for 70% of accidental deaths in persons aged 75 years and older. Falls can be markers/indicators of poor health and declining function, and are often associated with significant morbidity. More than 90% of hip fractures occur as a result of falls, with most of these fractures occurring in persons over 70 years of age (Fuller, 2000). About one third of people aged 65 years and older fall each year, resulting in a substantial decrease in quality of life in addition to placing a huge burden on current health care systems. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a 12-week exercise intervention programme, consisting of two 30 minute exercise sessions a week, could lower the risk of falling in a group of elderly women. Female subjects (n=22) with an average age of 79.5 years were selected from three retirement homes situated in Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, according to specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The subjects included presented no major cardiovascular and pulmonary disease signs and symptoms as recognised by the American College of Sports Medicine (2011); had no serious illnesses or co-morbidities; were mobile with no significant musculoskeletal disorders; had no uncorrected visual or vestibular problems as well as no significant cognitive impairments or major psychological disturbances; were not taking any psychotropic medications or Benzodiazepines that could affect their progress. Subjects also had to be willing to follow the 12-week exercise intervention programme and sign an informed consent document. The selected subjects then underwent a pre- and post-intervention assessment consisting of a subjective rating of their fear of falling, the Fall Risk Assessment: Biodex Balance system, Balance Evaluations Systems Test (BESTest) and the 30-Second Chair Stand Test. Statistica 10 was used to analyse the data. Data was analysed to assess any significant improvements that the exercise intervention had on each fall risk variable tested. The main fall risk variables consisted of: fear of falling, muscular strength, balance, gait and getting up strategies. Statistically significant improvements (p<0.001) were seen in: Fear of falling, muscular strength, balance, gait and getting up strategies after the 12-week exercise intervention programme. This study suggests that exercise intervention has the potential to decrease the risk of falling among elderly women and should play an extremely important role in the prevention of falling amongst this population group. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Om te val is ‘n alledaagse gebeurtenis en een van die mees ernstige probleme vir ons bejaarde bevolking (65 jaar en ouer). Insidente van val verklaar tot 70% van toevallige sterftes met betrekking tot persone van 75 jarige ouderdom en ouer. Om te val kan ‘n teken van swak gesondheid en/of ‘n afname in funksionele kapasiteit wees, en is gewoonlik met morbiditeitspatrone gekoppel. Meer as 90% van heupfrakture kom as gevolg van valle voor, waar die meeste van die frakture in persone bo 70 jarige ouderdom voorkom (Fuller, 2000). Minstens een derde van persone bo 65 jaar en ouer val elke jaar, so ‘n val het ‘n noemenswaardige afname in lewenskwaliteit tot gevolg asook ‘n enorme druk wat op huidige gesondheidsorg sisteme geplaas word. Die doel van die studie was om te bepaal of ‘n 12 week oefenintervensieprogram, wat uit twee oefen sessies van 30 minute elk bestaan, die risiko van val vir n groep bejaarde vroue kan verlaag. Vroulike individue (n=22) met ‘n gemiddelde ouderdom van 79.5 jaar uit drie ouetehuise/aftree oorde in Stellenbosch, Wes-Kaap, Suid-Afrika geleë; is volgens bepaalde insluitings- en uitsluitingskriteria geselekteer. Individue wie ingesluit is het geen tekens of simptome van grootskaalse kardiovaskulêre of pulmonêre siekte getoon nie, soos herken deur die “American College of Sports Medicine (2011) ; het aan geen ernstige siektes of ko-morbiditeite gely nie; kon stap met geen merkwaardige muskulo-skeletale afwykings nie; het geen nie-gekorrigeerde visie of vestibulêre probleme asook geen beduidende kognitiewe gestremdhede of ernstige sielkundige steurnisse gehad nie; het nie enige psigotropiese medikasie of Benzodiazepines geneem wat hul kon beinvloed nie. Individue moes bereid gewees het om die 12 week oefenintervensieprogram te volg en moes ook ‘n ingeligte toestemmingsvorm onderteken. Die geselekteerde individue het ‘n pre- en post-intervensie assessering ondergaan wat uit ‘n subjektiewe bepaling van hul vrees vir val bestaan het, die Val Risiko Assessering asook “Biodex Balans System Test, Balance Evaluations Systems Test (BESTest)” asook die 30 Sekonde Stoel-staan Toets. Statistica 10 is gebruik om die data te analiseer. Data was geanaliseer om enige merkwaardige verandering wat die oefenintervensie op elke val risiko veranderlike wat getoets was gehad het, te bepaal. Die belangrikste val risiko veranderlikes het uit: die vrees vir val, spier sterkte, balans, stappatroon en opstaan tegnieke bestaan. Betekenisvolle statistiese veranderinge (p<0.001) is gerapporteer in: die vrees vir val, spiersterkte, balans, stappatroon en opstaan tegnieke na die 12 week oefenintervensieprogram. Die studie bevind dat die intervensieprogram die potensiaal het om die risiko van val onder bejaarde vroue te verminder en behoort ‘n uiters belangrike rol in die voorkoming van val onder die bevolkingsgroep te speel.

Thesis (M Sport Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Limited data exists on a transition process of minimalist shoe running, warranting longitudinally designed studies. The primary aim of this study was thus to determine whether lower limb kinematics can be adapted, whether vertical average loading rate (VALR) can be attenuated, and whether lower limb joint moments can be altered by either novice or short-term (seven-week) minimalist shoe training. Ten experimental (EXP) habitually shod male endurance runners (age 24.10 ± 1.74; weekly training mileage 29.36 ± 8.51 km; BMI: 22.83 ± 8.55 kg/m2) volunteered to participate in a seven-week minimalist shoe transition programme. Eleven age and training matched control participants (CONT) (age 24.00 ± 2.18; weekly training mileage 24.90 ± 3.30 km; BMI: 23.78 ± 6.12) continued to run in their usual running shoes during the intervention period. All participants were provided with a pair of Vibram Fivefingers ® (VF). The VF intervention started at ~ 11% to 22% and ended at ~ 52% to 132% of the participants‘ usual shod training distance, determined by subjective lower limb comfort ratings. Lower limb biomechanics for barefoot: BF, minimalist: VF, and shod: SH were recorded with an eight-camera Vicon ® motion capture system, synchronized with a Bertec ® force plate, both prior to and after the transition programme. Twelve running trials at self-selected speeds were recorded bilaterally for each shoe condition. An inverse dynamic approach was used to calculate lower extremity joint moments. Primary parameters of interest were kinematic: step frequency (steps/min), step length (m), footstrike angles (FSA, degrees), strike index (SI,%); average vertical loading rate (VALR, BW/S) and sagittal and frontal plane peak joint moments (Nm/kg.m) of the ankle, knee and hip. At pre-testing, the results showed that for VALR, VF running was significantly higher than SH running but significantly lower than BF running (P < 0.05). Statistically significant shorter step lengths, higher step frequencies, greater plantar-flexion FSA, higher strike index, greater knee flexion FSA, and greater ankle inversion FSA were seen in BF and VF conditions compared to SH (P < 0.05). Statistically higher plantarflexion moment peak (PFM) while lower ankle dorsiflexion moment peak (DFM) and knee abduction moment peak (KAM) was found while BF and VF than SH running. The only statistically significant effect of the VF training intervention on kinematics was that of higher step frequency for the SH condition (P < 0.05), and greater inversion FSA in the BF condition. A trend was seen for the EXP group to increase VALR (P > 0.05). Ankle PFM peak significantly increased, while knee extensor moment peak (KEM) peak significantly decreased for the EXP group only (P < 0.05). Contrary to the initial hypothesis, novice or short-term VF training did not result in significantly attenuated VALR. However, alterations in joint moments suggest a shift in the distribution of external loads due to the VF training. Insufficient kinematic adaptation with VF training could be attributed to inability to sense higher VALR or due to greater perceived ratings of calf-Achilles discomfort, and may indicate that more than seven-weeks are required to transition and adapt to VF running. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Beperkte data is beskikbaar oor die oorgangs fase van hardloop met minimalistiese skoene, langtermyn studies is dus nodig. Die primêre doel van die studie is om te bepaal of gemiddelde vertikale ladingstempo (VALR) verminder kan word en onderste-ledemaat gewrigsmomente aangepas kan word deur ‗n korttermyn oefenprogram in minimalistiese skoene. Tien experimentaal (EXP) manlike uithouvermoë hardlopers (ouderdom 24.10 ± 1.74; weeklikse oefen afstand 29.36 ± 8.51; BMI: 22.83 ± 8.55) wat gewoonlik in skoene hardloop het vrywillig ingestem om aan die sewe week minimalistiese-skoen oorgangsprogram deel te neem. Elf kontrole deelnemers wat gepas is volgens ouderdom en oefening, (ouderdom 24.00 ± 2.18; weeklikse oefening 24.90 ± 3.30 km; BMI: 23.78 ± 6.12 kg/m2) het in hulle gewone oefenskoene bly hardloop. Alle deelnemers het ‗n paar Vibram Fivefingers ®-skoene ontvang. Die VF intervensie het begin met ~ 11% tot 22% en geeinde met ~ 52% tot 132% van die deelnemers gewone afstande in SH. Biomeganiese aspekte van die onderste ledemate vir kaalvoet: BF, minimalisties: VF, en skoene: SH is deur middel van ‗n agt-kamera Vicon ® bewegingsisteem gesinkroniseer met ‗n Bertec ® kragplatform, voor en na die oorgangsprogram bepaal. Twaalf hardloop-pogings teen ‘n self-bepaalde spoed is bilateraal vir elke skoenkondisie gemeet. ‗n Omgekeerde dinamiese benadering is gebruik om die gewrigsmomente van die onderste ledemate te bepaal. Die primêre parameters van belang was kinematies: treefrekwensie, treelengte, voettrefhoeke (FSA), tree-indeks (SI); gemiddelde vertikale ladingstempo (VALR), en sagittale en frontale vlak piek gewrigsmomente van die enkel, knie en heup. By voor-toetsing, die resultate toon aan dat vir VALR, VF-hardloop betekenisvol hoër was in vergelyking met SH-hardloop, maar betekenisvol laer was in vergelyking met BF-hardloop (P < 0.05). Statisties beduidende korter tree, hoër treefrekwnesie, meer plantaarfleksie FSA, hoer ―strike index‖, meer kniefleksie FSA, en meer enkel inversie FSA is gevind in die BF en VF kondisie in vergelyking met SH (P < 0.05). Statistiese betekenisvol hoër plantaarfleksiemoment pieke (PFM), en minder enkel dorsiefleksiemoment pieke (DFM) en knie abduksiemoment pieke (KAD) was gevind by BF- en VF- hardloop in vergelyking met SH-hardloop (P < 0.05) Die enigste statistiese betekenisvolle verskil in die kinematika van die VF intervensie was ‗n hoër tree frekwensie vir die SH kondisie (P < 0.05), en groter enkel inversie FSA in die BF kondisie. Die EXP groep neig om ‗n verhoging in VALR te hê (P > 0.05). ‗n Aansienlike verhoging is gevind in piek enkel PFM, terwyl piek knie KEM statisties wesenlik verlaag het in die EXP groep (P < 0.05). In teenstelling met die oorspronklike hipotese het onmiddellike en 'n korttermyn VF oefenprogram nie 'n bekenisvolle effek op VALR vermindering nie. Sommige veranderings in gewrigsmomente suggereer dat 'n verplasing in die verspreiding van eksterne ladings plaasvind as gevolg van die VF oefening. Die onvoldoende kinematiese aanpassing kan moontlik toegeskryf word aan die onvermoë om hoër VALR waar te neem, of as gevolg van die hoër waargenome lesings in kuit-Achilles ongemak. Dit kan aandui da 'n VF oorgang proses van meer as sewe weke vereis word om aan te pas aan.

Thesis (MSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There are a growing number of men and women world-wide who are suffering strokes due to poor lifestyle-related habits. While there is evidence of the differences in cerebral haemodynamics between stroke patients and both elderly and young healthy individuals, limited evidence has examined the effect of rehabilitation on cerebral haemodynamics. Furthermore, most studies have examined changes in cerebral haemodynamics during cognitive and functional tasks in isolation, with no literature published on them simultaneously. The primary aim of this study was to examine whether differences in cerebral haemodynamics exist between stroke patients and healthy elderly individuals while performing a simple and complex cognitive task. Thirty two men and women (age 75 ± 8 years) volunteered to participate in the study and were split into an experimental (n = 14) group consisting of stroke patients and a control (n = 18) group consisting of healthy individuals. Each participant was required to attend one testing session where measurements of oxyhaemoglobin (O2Hb), deoxy-haemoglobin (HHb), tissue oxygenation index (TOI) and total haemoglobin index (THI) were obtained. Measurements were obtained with the participants at rest, while performing the Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE) and the modified Stroop Task as cognitive tests, and the Timed Up-and-Go (TuG) and six minute walk test (6MWT) or Toe Taps (TT) as the functional tests. Furthermore, the outcome scores of the various tests were also recorded. Change in O2Hb levels were lower in the experimental group than in the control group, especially in the left prefrontal cortex (LPFC) while HHb values were higher in the right prefrontal cortex (RPFC) (p > 0.05). There were almost no differences in TOI between the two groups in either the LPFC or RPFC, however, statistically significant differences were seen in THI in the RPFC during the MMSE (p = 0.03), rest period 2 (p = 0.03), the first modified Stroop Task (p = 0.04), as well as the TuG (p = 0.02). Furthermore, significant differences were seen between the two groups with respect to the time taken to complete the TuG, with the experimental group completing it much faster (p = 0.04). The experimental group participants who had received regular rehabilitation performed consistently better across most of the testing phases, with a number of practically significant findings. The results show that definite differences exist between stroke patients and healthy elderly individuals when performing a simple and complex task. The positive effect of low intensity exercise on task performance was clearly seen in both groups, and holds a great deal of practical significance for the development of exercise programmes for healthy individuals, as well as stroke patients. Furthermore, rehabilitation following a stroke has obvious benefits as shown by the positive results of the current study, however, limited research exists to validate these findings, highlighting the need for further research in this area. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is ʼn wêreld wye toename in die aantal mans en dames wat beroertes ondervind as gevolg van swak lewenstyl-verwante gewoontes. Alhoewel baie navorsing beskikbaar is oor die verskille in serebrale hemodinamika tussen beroerte pasiënte en bejaardes, asook jong gesonde individue, is daar ʼn beperkte aantal studies oor die effek van rehabilitasie op serebrale hemodinamika. Meeste van hierdie studies het die veranderinge in serebrale hemodinamika tydens kognitiewe of funksionele take in isolasie ondersoek, met geen literatuur waar die effek van albei gesamentlik gemeet word nie. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was om die verskille in serebrale hemodinamika tussen beroerte pasiënte en gesonde bejaardes, tydens die uitvoering van ʼn eenvoudige en komplekse kognitiewe taak, te ondersoek. Twee-en-dertig mans en vroue (ouderdom 75 ± 8 jaar) het aan die studie deelgeneem. Die eksperimentele groep (n = 14) het bestaan uit die beroerte pasïente en die kontrole groep (n = 18) was gesonde bejaardes. Elke deelnemer het een toets sessie bygewoon waartydens oksihemoglobien (O2Hb), deoksihemoglobien (HHb), weefsel oksigenasie indeks (TOI) en totale hemoglobien indeks (THI) gemeet is. Metings is tydens rus geneem, asook tydens die kognitiewe toetse, die “Mini Mental State Exam” (MMSE) en die gewysigde Stroop taak gemeet, en die funksionele toetse, naamlik die “Timed Up-and-Go” (TuG) en die ses minute loop toets (6MWT) of “Toe Taps” (TT). Die eksperimentele groep se O2Hb was laer as die kontrole groep, veral in die linker voor frontale korteks (LPFC), en die eksperimentele groep se HHb waardes was hoër in die regter voor frontale korteks (RPFC) (p > 0.05). Daar was geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille in TOI tussen die twee groepe nie, maar wel in die THI in die RPFC tydens die MMSE (p = 0.03), rusperiode twee (p = 0.03), die eerste gewysigde Stroop Taak (p = 0.04) en die TuG toets (p = 0.02). Die kontrole groep was statisties betekenisvol vinniger as die eksperimentele groep in die TuG toets (p = 0.04). Deelnemers in die eksperimentele groep wat gereelde rehabilitasie ontvang het, het konsekwent beter gevaar tydens die toets sessie, en ʼn aantal prakties betekenisvolle verskille is in sekere veranderlikes gevind. Die resultate dui aan dat daar wel ʼn verskil in serebrale hemodinamika bestaan tussen beroerte pasiënte en gesonde bejaardes terwyl hulle eenvoudige en komplekse take verrig. Die positiewe effek van lae intensiteit oefening op prestasie was duidelike sigbaar van beide groepe. Hierdie resultate is prakties betekenisvol as dit kom by die ontwikkeling van oefenprogramme vir gesonde individue asook beroerte pasiënte. Rehabilitasie na ʼn beroerte hou ooglopende voordele in soos aangedui deur die positiewe bevindinge van die huidige studie, hoewel daar beperkte navorsing beskikbaar is om hierdie bevindinge te staaf. Daar is dus ʼn behoefte vir verdere navorsing in hierdie gebied.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Talent identification and early selection into a professional soccer academy has been reported to be very important for the long term development of footballing expertise (Le Gall et al., 2010). This awareness of the need for early identification of gifted youngsters has led to an increased number of soccer centres of excellence and academies throughout the world. Traditionally, identification and selection of promising individuals into youth soccer academies has been linked to a coach’s subjectivity and preconceived image of the player. Once this method is used in isolation it can result in tedious misjudgements in talent identification - hence the emphasis on science-based approaches. Through soccer-specific research, a number of anthropometric and physical parameters have been linked to successful performance in soccer. The primary aims of the study were to explore the anthropometric, somatotype and functional fitness characteristics of young academy soccer in South Africa and Zimbabwe and to distinguish variables that can be relevant for Talent Identification. The study followed a quantitative non-intervention design with a sample of convenience. A total of 74 young soccer players (Age 15.9±0.81) from South African (n = 41) and Zimbabwean (n = 33) soccer academies were purposively sampled. The following anthropometric variables were measured following the International Society of the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol: body mass and height; skinfolds – (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh, medial calf); Girths – (arm relaxed, arm flexed and tensed, waist, gluteal, and calf); bone breadths – (biepicondylar humerus and biepicondylar femur). Functional fitness variables that were measured include: lower back muscle flexibility (sit and reach test), upper body flexibility (shoulder flexibility), leg power using (vertical and horizontal jumps), overhead throw (2kg medicine ball throw), speed tests (10, 20, and 40m sprint tests), agility (Illinois test) and aerobic fitness (Hoff test). There were no statistically significant differences in age, body mass, height, fat mass, body mass index, lower back flexibility, right shoulder flexibility, 20m sprint, and endurance capacity (p>0.05). Statistically significant differences were found in percentage body fat (p>0.05), sum of 8 skinfolds, fat free mass, somatotype, left shoulder flexibility, upper and lower body power, 10m and 40m sprints (p<0.01). South African players were found to have higher %BF and sum of skinfolds and then Zimbabwean players. It was concluded that Zimbabwean players performed significantly better than South Africans in agility, 10m, 40m sprints, vertical jump, horizontal jump and overhead throw and had better future chances of success in soccer. Goalkeepers were taller and heavier, while midfielders and defenders were found to be lighter and shorter. Goalkeepers were the most agile group, while forwards were the fastest group. Agility, power and speed were the most important variables that can be used during talent selection and coaches should purposefully work to develop these characteristic during training sessions. Height and weight are relevant in allocating positional roles to players and not in Talent Identification. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Talentidentifisering en vroeë seleksie in ʼn professionele sokkerakademie blyk baie belangrik te wees vir die langtermyn ontwikkeling van sokker vaardighede (Le Gall et al., 2010). Hierdie behoefte vir die vroeë identifisering van talentvolle jong spelers het aanleiding gegee tot ʼn toename in sokker sentra van uitnemendheid en akademies wêreldwyd. Tradisioneel is die identifisering en seleksie van belowende individue vir toelating tot ʼn jeug sokker akademie aan ʼn afrigter se subjektiwiteit en voorafopgestelde idees van die speler gekoppel. Wanneer die metode in isolasie gebruik word kan dit dodelike mistastings in talent identifisering teweeg bring – daarom die klem op wetenskaplik gebaseerde benaderings. Deur sokker spesifieke navorsing is daar alreeds ʼn aantal antropometriese en fisieke parameters aan suksesvolle prestasie in sokker gekoppel. Die primêre doelwitte van die studie was om die antropometrie, somatotipe en funksionele fiksheidskenmerke van jong sokker akademie spelers in Suid-Afrika en Zimbabwe te ondersoek en om veranderlikes wat relevant vir talentidentifisering kan wees te onderskei. Die studie het ʼn kwantitatiewe, nie-intervensie ontwerp met ʼn gerieflikheidsteekproef gevolg. ʼn Totaal van 74 jong sokkerspelers van Suid-Afrika (n = 41) en Zimbabwe (n = 33) sokker akademies is doelgerig geselekteer (ouderdom 15.9 ± 0.81 jaar). Die volgende antropometriese veranderlikes is ooreenkomstig met die International Society of the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protokol gemeet: liggaamsmassa en -lengte; velvoue (triseps, subskapulêr, biseps, iliokristale vou, supraspinalis, abdominale, quadriseps, mediale gastroknemius); omtrekke (arm ontspanne, arm in fleksie en gespanne, middel, gluteale, en kuit); been breedtes (biepikondelêre humerus en biepikondelêre femur). Funksionele fiksheidsveranderlikes wat gemeet is was: laerug spierlenigheid (sit en reik toets), boonste ekstremiteit lenigheid (skouer lenigheid), beenkrag (vertikale en horisontale spronge), oorhoofse gooi (2kg medisyne balgooi), spoedtoets (10, 20, en 40m spoedtoetse), ratsheid (Illinois toets) en aërobiese fiksheid (Hoff toets). Geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille is in ouderdom, liggaamsmassa, -lengte, vetmassa, liggaamsmassa indeks, laerug lenigheid, regterskouer lenigheid, 20 meter spoed en uithouvermoë kapasiteit (p>0.05) tussen SA en Zimbabwe spelers gevind nie. Statisties betekenisvolle verskille is wel in persentasie liggaamsvet (p<0.05), som van agt velvoue, vetvrye massa, somatotipe, linkerskouer lenigheid, boonste en onderste ekstremiteit liggaamskrag, 10m en 40m spoed (p<0.01) gevind. Suid-Afrikaanse spelers het ʼn hoër persentasie liggaamvet en som van velvoue as die Zimbabwiese spelers gehad. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat Zimbabwiese spelers betekenisvol beter as Suid-Afrikaanse spelers in die meeste fiksheidstoetse gevaar het en waarskynlik beter kanse vir sukses in sokker het. Doelwagters was groter en swaarder, terwyl middelveld spelers en verdedigers ligter en korter was. Doelwagters was die ratste groep, terwyl voorspelers die vinnigste groep was. Ratsheid, krag en spoed is as die belangrikste veranderlikes geïdentifiseer wat tydens talentidentifisering gebruik kan word en afrigters moet doelbewus daaraan werk om hierdie eienskappe tydens oefensessies te ontwikkel. Lengte en gewig is relevant in die toekenning van posisionele rolle aan spelers en nie in talentidentifisering nie. Hierdie is die eerste studie waarin die antropometriese en funksionele fiksheidsprofiele van jong sokkerspelers in Suid-Afrika en Zimbabwe met mekaar vergelyk word. Dit baan die weg vir ander navorsers om hierop uit te brei deur sokkerspelers van ander lande in Afrika te toets en by te dra tot die kennis van sokkerspelers in Afrika. Hierdie navorsing skep ook die basis vir afrigters en oefenkundiges in Afrika om die bydrae wat die wetenskap maak ten opsigte van liggaamsamestelling en funksionele fiksheid beter te verstaan om talentidentifisering in sokker te verbeter.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There are extensive literature on the PEH response after acute and chronic aerobic and resistance exercise, as well as a few studies on concurrent and water exercise. However, there is comparatively little evidence that high intensity interval training (HIIT) elicits similar post exercise blood pressure reductions (PEH) compared to other types of exercise. Furthermore, it is difficult to quantify the magnitude of the hypotensive response following these exercises, due to variations in exercise protocols in terms of intensity and duration. Both these training variables are considered important determinants of the magnitude and duration of the PEH response. The current study determined the magnitude of the PEH response after an acute bout and six sessions of HIIT, and the effects after two weeks of detraining in overweight/obese young women. Twenty young women (aged 21 ± 2 years) volunteered for the study. All the subjects were normotensive (SBP: 119.2 ± 5.6 mmHg and DBP: 78.8 ± 4.1 mmHg). Subjects performed six sessions of HIIT within two weeks and detrained for two weeks. SBP, DBP, MAP and HR were monitored during seated recovery after exercise for 60 min to determine the change from resting values. The overall outcome showed that an acute HIIT session resulted in a reduction of 2.9 mmHg in SBP which approached near clinical significance, while six sessions of HIIT caused a clinically significant reduction of 5.3 mmHg; this response was almost totally reversed after detraining. There were no clinically significant reductions in DBP after the acute or six sessions of HIIT (1.7 and 2.7 mmHg, respectively). However, a clinically significant hypotensive response of 3.9 mmHg was sustained after detraining following the maximal exercise capacity test. MAP also reduced by a magnitude of 2.3 and 5.6 mmHg, respectively, after the acute bout and six sessions of HIIT, and detraining values were still 2.9 mmHg lower than resting values and approached near clinical significance. The results indicate that both an acute bout and six sessions of HIIT elicited a meaningful PEH response. However, the six sessions of HIIT caused a clinically significant reduction which was approximately twice the acute session. Likewise, detraining showed clinically significant effects in DBP and MAP, but SBP returned to near baseline values. This suggests that in only two weeks, the accumulated effects of six sessions of HIIT elicited a greater hypotensive response than after an acute session of HIIT. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is omvattende literatuur oor die post-oefening hipotensie (POH) na afloop van akute en kroniese aërobiese en weerstandsoefeninge, asook enkele studies oor gelyktydige krag- en uithouvermoë- en wateroefeninge. Daar is egter relatief min bewyse dat hoë intensiteit interval oefening (HIIO) soortgelyke post-oefening afnames in bloeddruk (POH) in vergelyking met ander tipes oefening veroorsaak. Voorts is dit moeilik om die omvang van die hipotensiewe respons na afloop van oefening te kwantifiseer, hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die variasies in oefeningprotokolle in terme van intensiteit en tydsduur. Beide hierdie inoefeningveranderlikes word as belangrike determinante van die omvang en die tydsduur van die POH respons beskou. Die huidige studie het die omvang van die POH respons na ʼn akute sessie en ses sessies HIIO, en die gevolge na afloop van twee weke se nie-inoefening (“detraining”) by oorgewig/vetsugtige jong dames, bepaal. Twintig jong dames (ouderdom 21 ± 2 jaar) het vrywillig ingestem om aan die studie deel te neem. Al die deelnemers was normotensief (SBD: 119.2 ± 5.6 mmHg en DBD: 78.8 ± 4.1 mmHg). Die deelnemers het ses sessies HIIO binne twee weke voltooi en het daarna vir twee weke geen inoefeningsessies gehad nie. SBD, DBD, GAD en HS is tydens ʼn sittende herstelfase vir 60 minute gemonitor om die verandering vanaf rustende waardes te bepaal. Die algehele uitkoms toon dat ʼn akute HIIO sessie ʼn afname van 2.9 mmHg in SBD tot gevolg gehad het wat aan kliniese betekenisvolheid grens, terwyl ses sessies van HIIO ʼn klinies betekenisvolle afname van 5.3 mmHg veroorsaak het; hierdie respons wat bykans volledige omgekeerd na die twee weke met geen inoefening. DBD het geen kliniese betekenisvolle afname na afloop van die akute of ses sessies van HIIO getoon nie (1.7 en 2.7 mmHg, respektiewelik). ʼn Klinies betekenisvolle hipotensiewe respons van 3.9 mmHg is egter gevind na die geen inoefeningsperiodes. GAD het ook met ʼn omvang van 2.3 en 5.6 mmHg, respektiewelik, verminder na afloop van die akute sessie en ses sessies van HIIO. Die geen inoefening waardes was steeds 2.9 mmHg laer as die rustende waardes en het aan kliniese betekenisvolheid gegrens. Die resultate toon dat beide ʼn akute sessie en ses sessies van HIIO ʼn betekenisvolle POH respons ontlok het. Ses sessies van HIIO het egter ʼn klinies betekenisvolle afname, wat ongeveer twee keer soveel as die afname van die akute sessie was, veroorsaak. In dieselde lig het ʼn twee weke geen inoefeningsperiode steeds klinies betekenisvolle veranderinge in DBD en GAD getoon, maar SBD het tot naby aan die basislyn waardes teruggekeer. Hierdie resultate suggereer dat in slegs twee weke die geakkumuleerde effekte van ses sessies van HIIO ʼn groter hipotensiewe respons as na ʼn akute sessie van HIIO ontlok het.

Thesis (MScSportSc)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is a growing concern in South Africa and worldwide about the global epidemic of obesity and overweightness among the general population. Obesity mediates the pathogenesis of pathological conditions and is associated with a poor quality of life, high morbidity and mortality rates and a huge burden on an individual’s and the health system’s infrastructure and finances. The answer to this rising epidemic is weight loss. Endurance training has been shown to induce weight loss however, people usually cite lack of time as a barrier to meaningful participation in exercise programmes. High intensity interval training (HIIT) therefore emerges as a potential solution to these barriers as it takes a relatively short period of time compared to endurance training. Despite the differences in exercise durations the most cogent advantage is that HIIT elicits not just similar, but even superior central and peripheral adaptations. The central and peripheral adaptations have been shown to enhance weight loss, improve blood lipids and glucose levels, as well as decreasing blood pressure. The challenge facing exercise physiologists is to find the optimal exercise intensity and duration of HIIT bouts which would be time efficient, safe and well tolerated by overweight and obese people. The shortcomings of literature are that most HIIT studies have focused on healthy, overweight and obese men and these studies cannot be extrapolated to women who have been shown to respond differently to training. Moreover, other interventions investigating the effects of HIIT in women and men have been longer term rather than short term interventions. In order to fill the gaps in the literature, the main aim of this study was to investigate the training and detraining effects of a short-term HIIT programme on selected health-related measures in young overweight and obese women. To this end, a non-random sample of 20 overweight and obese women (aged 18-25) volunteered to participate in this study. Selected health-related outcomes were measured prior to training. The pre-training testing was followed by the HIIT intervention which was two weeks and consisted of six sessions using the 10 – 15x1 minute running at 90% HRmax which was separated by one minute active recovery periods at 50-60% of HRmax. The HIIT intervention was followed by a post test in which baseline measurements were repeated. This was then followed by a two week detraining period and follow up testing. The main finding of this study was that a period of two weeks of HIIT can elicit adaptations that can lower the risk profiles of young overweight and obese women. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in body mass (1.6%, p = 0.001), fat mass (3.7%, p = 0.001) and waist circumference (4.8%, p = 0.001), and an increase in lean mass of 1.9% (p = 0.001). There was also a decrease in blood glucose (11%, p = 0.001), total cholesterol (10.4 %, p = 0.01), systolic (3.4%, p = 0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (5.8%, p = 0.001) levels. Finally there was a statistically significant increase in relative VO2max and exercise capacity after the HIIT The follow-up testing after two weeks of detraining shows that the metabolic adaptations that were achieved by the HIIT protocol are relatively lasting or are at least not completely reversed. The weight loss induced by HIIT is important in that it is the major target in lowering the prevalence of overweightness and obesity. The HIIT protocol in this study emerges as a time efficient strategy in eliciting positive adaptations in clinical populations and healthy people. Moreover these findings suggest that 10 minute and 15 minute HIIT work bouts at near-maximal intensities are possibly the minimum amount of training that is needed to induce significant weight loss and other positive health-related outcomes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar bestaan ʼn toenemende besorgdheid in Suid-Afrika en wêreldwyd oor die globale epidemie van obesiteit en oorgewig onder die algemene bevolking. Obesiteit fasiliteer die patogenese van verskeie siektetoestande en word met ʼn swak kwaliteit lewe, hoë morbiditeit en mortaliteit en ʼn geweldige las op ʼn individu en die gesondheidsowerhede se infrastruktuur en finansies geassosieer. Een van die antwoorde op hierdie stygende epidemie is gewigsverlies. Dit is reeds gewys dat uithouvermoë oefening saam met ʼn kalorie beperkende dieet gewigsverlies in die hand werk. Mense dui egter ʼn tekort aan tyd as ʼn hindernis tot betekenisvolle deelname aan ʼn oefenprogram aan. Hoë intensiteit interval inoefening (HIIO) is dus ʼn potensiële oplossing tot hierdie hindernis aangesien dit in vergelyking met uithouvermoë inoefening in ʼn relatiewe korter periode van tyd uitgevoer kan word. Afgesien van die verskille in inoefenperiodes is die mees logiese voordeel dat die HIIO nie net soortgelyke nie, maar self beter sentrale en periferale fisiologiese aanpassing voortbring. Die sentrale en periferale aanpassing verhoog gewigsverlies, verbeter bloedlipiedes en glukose vlakke, en veroorsaak ʼn afname in bloeddruk. Alhoewel ʼn aantal studies die voordele van HIIO by jonger en ouer populasies aandui, is baie min studies op vrouens uitgevoer. Bevindinge kan nie noodwendig na vrouens ekstrapoleer word nie omdat hulle dikwels verskillend op inoefening as mans reageer. Dit is ook nie bekend of ʼn kort HIIO intervensie ʼn betekenisvolle impak op oorgewig en vetsugtige vrouens sou hê nie, asook hoe blywend enige veranderinge sou wees nie. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was dus om die inoefening- en die geen-inoefening effekte van ʼn korttermyn HIIO program op geselekteerde gesondheidskenmerke in jong oorgewig en vetsugtige dames te bepaal. ʼn Nie-ewekansige steekproef van 20 oorgewig en vetsugtige vrouens (18-25 jaar) het vrywillig ingestem om aan hierdie studie deel te neem. Geselekteerde gesondheidskenmerke is voor die aanvang van die inoefening gemeet. Die HIIO intervensie het twee weke geduur en het uit ses sessies bestaan (10 – 15x1 minuut draf by 90% HSmaks en een minuut aktiewe herstel by 50-60% HSmaks). Die HIIO intervensie is deur ʼn na-toets gevolg waarin basislyn metings herhaal is. Dit is deur ʼn twee weke geen-inoefening periode en opvolgtoetse opgevolg. Die hoofbevinding van hierdie studie was dat ses sessies van HIIO fisiologiese aanpassings na vore gebring het wat die risiko profiele van jong oorgewig en vetsugtige vrouens verlaag het. Daar was statisties betekenisvolle afnames in liggaamsmassa (1.6%, p < 0.001), vetmassa (3.7%, p < 0.001) en heupomtrek (4.8%, p < 0.001) en ʼn toename in vetvrye liggaamsmassa van 1.9% (p < 0.001). Daar was ook ʼn afname in bloedglukose (11%, p < 0.001), totale cholesterol (10.4 %, p = 0.01), sistoliese (3.4%, p < 0.001) en diastoliese bloeddruk (5.8%, p < 0.001). Daar was ook statisties betekenisvolle verbeteringe in relatiewe VO2maks en oefeningtoleransie na inoefening. Die opvolgtoetse na twee weke van geen-inoefening het getoon dat metaboliese aanpassings wat deur die HIIO bereik is, relatief blywend van aard was of ten minste nie totaal omgekeerd was nie. Die gewigsverlies wat deur die HIIO veroorsaak was is belangrik in die sin dat dit die hoofdoelwit aanspreek om die voorkoms van oorgewig en vetsugtigheid te verminder. Die studie suggereer verder dat 10 – 15 minute HIIO werksessies, by naby maksimale intensiteite, moontlik die minimum hoeveelheid inoefening is wat benodig word om betekenisvolle gewigsverlies en ander positiewe gesondheidskenmerke te bereik.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: With the introduction of professionalism in 1995, rugby union has rapidly and continuously changed. One such change was the introduction of several law changes after the 2007 Rugby World Cup to increase the appeal, continuity and safety of the game. Research on the effects of these law changes has primarily focused on the technical and tactical aspects of the game and very little on the changes to the physical profile of match play, particularly in a South African context. The first objective of this study was to compare the 2007 and 2013 seasons of the South African Currie Cup tournament in order to determine whether there were any effects as a result of the law changes on the scoring, time interval, general skills and contact profiles. The second objective was to compare the 2007 and 2013 seasons of the South African Currie Cup tournament in order to determine the impact of the law changes on the time variables. This thesis will follow a research article format. Research article one will address the first objective of the study. The first major finding of the study was that the profile of the game has changed to a more physical and continuous game. There was an increase in the number of player actions (passing, tackling and rucks/mauls) (p < 0.01), as well as significantly more penalty goals (p < 0.01). The results further revealed that fewer tries were scored (p = 0.07), while the number of stoppages to the game, scrums and line-outs also showed a decrease (p < 0.01). These findings, mentioned above, were more prominent in the second half of the match. A trend revealed that teams were adopting a more defensive playing style, whereby they sacrificed committing numbers to the breakdowns and rather commit players on defence. This has created a more physically intense match with fewer tries being scored. The second research article will address the second objective of the study. Results of the study show that the profile of the game has changed to a more dynamic, continuous game with less time spent in rucks/mauls and fewer set pieces (scrums and line-outs). The duration of the match has increased owing to an increase in total stoppage time, mainly as a result of greater use being made of the TMO. This is evident in the significant increase in total match time (p < 0.01) and total stoppage time (p < 0.01), while the total ball-in-play time was significantly less (p < 0.01). The total tackle time has increased significantly (p < 0.01), while the total ruck/maul, scrum and line-out time decreased significantly (p < 0.01). By analysing the match profile, as with this thesis, coaches and trainers will be better informed to develop training programmes that are specific to the demands of modern match play. Based on the results, coaches and trainers should develop individual and team performance profiles to better understand the physical demands experienced by the players and teams, which will assist in implementing more specific recovery strategies and planning of training loads. The conditioning and skills development of players should focus primarily on contact situations (tackling and rucking) by adding contact elements to agility training and skill-based drills. With the various contact times measured, trainers can determine specific durations of muscle tension needed to overload and strengthen players by adjusting the movements of an exercise. These applications will allow coaches and trainers to prepare players for the specific demands of the modern game. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sedert die begin van professionalisme in rugby in 1995 het die spel vinnig en aanhoudend verander. Een van hierdie veranderinge was die instelling van verskeie reëlveranderings ná die 2007 Rugby Wêreldbekertoernooi om die aantreklikheid, kontinuïteit en veiligheid van die spel te verhoog. Navorsing wat die uitwerking van hierdie reëlveranderings ondersoek het, het veral gefokus op die tegniese en taktiese aspekte van die spel en baie min op die veranderinge in die fisieke profiel van wedstrydspel, veral in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Die eerste doelwit van die studie was om die 2007 en 2013 seisoen van die Suid-Afrikaanse Curriebekertoernooi te vergelyk om te bepaal wat die uitwerking van die reëlveranderings op die aanteken van punte, tydsinterval, algemene vaardighede en kontakprofiele was. Die tweede doelwit was om die 2007 en 2013 seisoen van die Suid-Afrikaanse Curriebekertoernooi te vergelyk om die impak van die reëlveranderings op tydveranderlikes te bepaal. Hierdie tesis is saamgestel volgens ‘n artikelgebaseerde formaat. Navorsingsartikel een spreek die eerste doelwit van die studie aan. Die eerste hoofbevinding van die studie was dat die spel verander het na ‘n meer fisieke, aaneenlopende tipe spel, met ‘n toename in speler-aksies (aangeë, laagvatte, losskrums en losgemale) en ‘n afname in die aantal kere wat die spel gestop het, veral in die tweede helfte. Daar was ‘n toename in die aantal speler-aksies (aangeë, laagvatte, losskrums en losgemale) (p < 0.01), sowel as beduidend meer strafskoppe (p < 0.01). Resultate het verder gewys dat minder drieë gedruk is (p = 0.07), terwyl die aantal kere wat die spel gestop het, en skrums en lynstane ook verminder het (p < 0.01). Die bevindings soos hierbo uiteengesit, was meer prominent in die tweede helfte van ‘n wedstryd. Daar was ‘n neiging dat spanne ‘n meer verdedigende speelstyl aangeneem het, waar hulle verkies het om spelers op verdedigend te plaas as om meer spelers by die afbreekpunte te hê. Dit het ‘n wedstryd geskep wat fisiek meer intens was met minder drieë wat gedruk is. Die tweede navorsingsartikel het die tweede doelwit van die studie aangespreek. Resultate van die studie het aangedui dat die profiel van die spel verander het na ‘n meer dinamiese, aaneenlopende spel met ‘n afname in die tyd wat aan losskrums/losgemale bestee word, met minder vaste spel (skrums en lynstane). Die duur van die wedstryd het toegeneem as gevolg van ‘n toename in die totale stoptyd, veral as gevolg van die gebruik van die TMO. Dit blyk uit die beduidende toename in totale wedstrydtyd (p < 0.01) en totale stoptyd (p < 0.01), terwyl die totale tyd wat die bal in spel was, betekenisvol afgeneem het (p < 0.01). Die totale laagvattyd het beduidend toegeneem (p < 0.01), terwyl die totale losskrum-/losgemaal-, skrum- en lynstaantyd betekenisvol afgeneem het (p < 0.01). Deur die wedstrydprofiel te ontleed, kan afrigters hul oefenprogram aanpas om aan die spesifieke vereistes van wedstrydspel te voldoen. Afrigters behoort profiele van individuele en spanprestasie te ontwikkel wat op die resultate gegrond is ten einde ‘n beter begrip te verkry van die fisieke eise waaraan die spelers en spanne onderwerp word. Dit sal help met die implementering van spesieke herstelstrategieë en die beplanning van oefenladings. Die kondisionering en vaardigheidsontwikkeling van spelers behoort hoofsaaklik toegespits te word op kontaksituasies (laagvatte en losskrums) deur kontakelemente by ratsheids- en vaardigheidsoefeninge te voeg. Deur die meting van die verskillende kontaktye kan afrigters die spesifieke duur van spierspanning bepaal wat nodig is om spelers sterker te maak, en die bewegings van ‘n oefening daarvolgens aanpas. Hierdie toepassings sal afrigters in staat stel om spelers vir die bepaalde eise van die moderne spel voor te berei.

Schoolbag carriage represents a considerable daily occupational load for children (Negrini et al., 1999). Whittfield et al., (2001) and Puckree et al., (2004) have reported that the carriage of heavy schoolbags is a suspected aetiological factor of the daily physical stress of school pupils. Methods: One hundred and eighty-seven pupils voluntarily participated in a controlled, descriptive, epidemiological retrospective study. Subjects’ biographical, epidemiological, exercise history and lifestyle information was gathered by a self-report questionnaire (adapted from Puckree et al., 2004). Subjects’ body mass, stature and mass of their schoolbags were measured using a Detecto stadiometer scale. Digital images, electromyographical muscular activity and a posture profile assessments were captured in the frontal and sagittal planes whilst the pupils were in the loaded (carrying a schoolbag) and the unloaded phases (not carrying schoolbags). These images were analyzed using biomechanical software, Dartfish. The study being retrospective in nature recorded the prevalence of schoolbag carriage musculoskeletal pain over the last 12 months. Descriptive statistical tests such as mean, mode, frequency, percentages and inferential chi-square statistical test (set at a probability of 0.05) were employed to analyze the data. Results: The result indicated that 78.99% of the cohort experience musculoskeletal pain due to schoolbag carriage (p<0.0001). The most prevalent anatomical sites of pain were the shoulders (37.04%), neck (20.37%), lumbar (11.73%) and thorax (10.49%) (p<0.0001). The mean mass of the schoolbag carried by the cohort was 5.45kg which was approximately 11.5% of their body mass. The predisposing factors of the musculoskeletal pain were the methods employed to carry the schoolbag (single strap (20.21%) versus double straps (76.6%), altered posture due to excessive schoolbag mass together with a reduced craniovertebral angle (p<0.05). Discussion & Conclusion: The excessive schoolbag mass carried by the pupils placed strain on the immature vertebral column of these pupils thus causing postural deviations which induced musculoskeletal pain and discomfort. / Thesis (M.Sport Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.