Cities, particularly in developing countries, are faced .with the challenge of population increase aggravated by rural to urban migration. This has increased the level of unemployment since job creation does not keep up with the rate at which population influx to cities occurs. This leads to poverty that undermines the economy of the city. Urban agriculture (UA) has the potential to improve livelihoods of the urban poor people through contributing to food security and generating income. However, UA has generally not been practised successfully and in a sustainable manner, owing to the lack of resources (land and finance), farming skills, and inadequate support services from organizations. This study presupposes that the inadequacy of resources in support of UA strongly reflects the level of co-operation and co-ordination among those who are, or could support UA. It will also reflect the levels of commitment of a shared vision. It thus sets out to explore the prospects of organizational collaboration to support UAand uses the Greater Pietermaritzburg Area (PMB) as a focus for the study. The local organizations in PMB were found to have frameworks through which they supported UA and other development projects. They were however found not to have any strategic plan, clear definition of organizations' roles, no common understanding of UA, nor a shared mission or vision of UA. As a result there was poor coordination and commitment to collaboration. It appears that a successful collaboration requires most importantly, an acknowledgement of the complexity of collaboration and a clear understanding of its purpose among the collaborating partners. Also required is accepting the need for leadership, integration of ideas when planning and implementing, clarification of roles and accountability. To appreciate this, organizational and individual empowerment is needed. Empowerment could take three forms: objective (knowledge of collaborations' aim, objectives, and procedures), subjective (assertiveness to undertake work involved), and competency (acquisition of skills to enhance ability to perform). The study believes these .factors could help improve the performance of organizational frameworks in developing UA to a point that its full potential is realized. The findings emphasized the value of adopting a systems approach in organizing delivery of services in support of UA. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Wildlife management in Moryambique has had a troubled history. The end of civil war and installment of a democratic Government provided opportunity to redefine policy and implementation of conservation. Weakened by civil strife and with wildlife decimated in many areas, Government sought approaches to conservation that would promote participation by investors and civil society, particularly rural communities. The intention is to acknowledge the rights of rural people to resources and the benefits that can accrue from their use. Partnerships are seen as a way in which Government can bring the required financial and human resources to bear whilst at the same time engendering positive attitudes to conservation in general, and to policy in particular. The purpose of this research is to examine, using two case study conservation areas, the consequences of Government's attempts to implement its policy. The philosophical basis for the research is that policy reform and implementation should be envisaged as a complex system comprising many interactions and that when this complexity is not acknowledged and addressed systemically, it predisposes the process of policy reform and implementation to failure. A principal cause of failure is considered to be that assumptions are not made explicit and this results in development and application of an approach that does not accord with reality. Further, because of the networked nature of the system, failure at one point can be magnified as its consequences are propagated through the system. A conceptual framework for policy reform and implementation is developed. This exposes some critical assumptions about Government's capacity to implement policy and the ways in which implementation is experienced by stakeholders, especially local communities. Context is provided by tracing the evolution of approaches to conservation in Moryambique from the pre-colonial era to the present. The findings are that Government does not have the capacity to implement its conservation policy and this is shown to have serious implications for how local people perceive and respond to Government approaches to conservation. Causal factors are analysed and assessed. It is concluded that the process of policy reform and implementation is complex but that a systems approach provides a simple and easily comprehended way in which this complexity can be interpreted and taken into account with potentially very significant benefits. Perceptions are shown to be a powerful determinant of response to policy reform and implementation. As these are commonly a basis for destructive tensions between parties, it is suggested that research directed at defining the principles that should underpin management of perceptions and tensions should be encouraged. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Common-pool resources are goods that are kept from potential users only at a cost. These goods are subtractible in consumption and can diminish or disappear. Our failure to manage or exclude noncontributing beneficiaries in river resources could lead to lack of maintenance or protection of these resources. Critical to access to and use of river resources are tenurial rights. Without a stake in the tenure and governance of river resources, local communities could consume river resources opportunistically. It is on this background that in order to attain the better management of river resources, this study has explored tenurial rights as . critical in the realization of this objective. It is imperative that all relevant stakeholders play a role. Critical in this role are the institutional instruments. In alluding to the need to better manage our river resources, the South African government, through the Department of Water AffairS. ~dForestry (DWAF), has passed the Water Act. This act is tasked with ensuring th~t c)~ water resources are conserved so as to serve the present and the future generations. However, the success of this law, as various researchers indicate, rests on a co-operative approach involving all role players, particularly at local level. It is only whenco-IIlanagement of river resources is put in place that we can be in a position to use our resources sustainably for the benefit of the present and the future generations. Central in this approach, in rural areas, are Amakhosi . and other traditional institutions which command power. In order to test this 'hypothesis, this study was conducted in Salem, a peri-urban area where the power and authority of Amakhosi is, at least, not as strong as in deep rural areas. While the power of these institutions has waned over decades, this study has found a need to include Amakhosi in decision-making on river resource use because of their long-standing authority over communities living alongside rivers. Despite the decline in the power of Amakhosi in enforcing control measures in the management of river resources,a myriad of responses indicate that this institution still possess authority in the control and management of river resources in the Salem area. However, this study has further established that a co-operative system entailing all relevant stakeholders could enhance, and indeed bring about a sustainable management of river resources. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Temperature and rainfall vary spatially within South Africa and they in turn affect the parasites and intermediate host snails involved in schistosomiasis transmission. The primary goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between these two abiotic variables and schistosomiasis in South Africa using a Geographic Information System (GlS) as a spatial analytical tool. The secondary goal was to estimate the population exposure to schistosomiasis. Prevalence data for Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni obtained from a national hardcopy atlas and two long-term, retrospective, high resolution climate datasets were used to produce two models (temperature-suitability and regression analysis) based on different GIS methodologies. The temperature-suitability model defined areas that are suitable and unsuitable for disease transmission by relating documented temperature regimes to the schistosomes' larval biology. The map outputs show that temperature minima corresponded better with the disease data than temperature maxima. Based on different climate and population data permutations, between approximately 3 903 734 and 4 379 079 school-aged children live in these temperature-suitable zones. The regression model tested the hypothesis that temperatures, especially during spring and summer favoured schistosomiasis transmission more than those of autumn and winter. Positive associations were expected with the rainfall variables. A logistic equation was used to predict, as accurately as possible within the model's limitations, the probability of schistosomiasis occurring in a given area. Increasing annual rainfall, as well as spring and autumn temperature maxima and minima predicted an increase in S. haematobium prevalence rates. Schistosoma haematobium prevalence rates of 11-25% and 26-50% were predicted in the north-eastern and eastern coastal regions. A prevalence rate of 71 to 100% was predicted from Limpopo to KwaZulu-Natal. Increasing the average monthly rainfall, spring temperature maxima and autumn temperature minima, increased the likelihood of S. mansoni transmission. Schistosoma mansoni prevalence rates of 26-50% and 71 to 100% were predicted in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu- Natal and Eastern Cape. This is the first time GIS has been used to correlate climate variables and schistosomiasis occurrence in South Africa. The regression model requires further refinement and it is not as applicable as the temperature-suitability model for practical purposes. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

The end of the last century saw a meteoric rise in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and its implementation worldwide subsequent to it being legislated by the United States in 1970. The South African Government's Council for the Environment attempted to emulate international developments in EIA and compiled the Integrated Environmental Management (IEM) guidelines of 1989 which delineated the procedure for undertaking EIAs for development projects in South Africa. It was envisaged that these guidelines would ultimately be made law. The period between 1989 and 1997 was a window period when the IEM guidelines were implemented voluntarily. This period therefore constitutes an important era in the history of EIA in South Africa to which constant reference is made and upon which further development in EIA in South Africa has been reliant. The period 1989 to 1997 also coincided with a major increase in the bulk electricity supply to KwaZulu-Natal by Eskom, the national electricity utility. Eskom had actively tracked the evolution of Environmental Management globally and was considered to be at the forefront of Industrial Environmental Management in South Africa and there was therefore an expectation that Eskom would implement the IEM guidelines. In this study twelve EIAs for Eskom powerlines and substations constructed in KZN for the period were analysed and trends in the implementation of the IEM guidelines extrapolated. This study highlights the extent to which the IEM guidelines were implemented. It discusses the problems attendant to its implementation, which were found to be common to the implementation of EIA globally. From this research it became clear that factors external to the IEM guidelines needed to be resolved before the IEM guidelines could be implemented. The administrative requirement was one of the most important and necessary requirements for successful implementation, but this had not been thoroughly anticipated by Eskom nor the guidelines themselves. This required that there was major reform to policy and company procedure, which had to be clearly understood and accepted, before IEM could be effectively implemented. As a consequence, the implementation of the various steps of the IEM guidelines seldom revealed consistent and satisfactory implementation. Even where the IEM guidelines were more closely followed and implemented, previously entrenched technocentrist procedures and ideals persisted and therefore IEM was subverted and implemented with the wrong goal in mind. There was also an expectation that there would be an improvement in EIA practice with time. It was found that there was a greater association between the quality of the EIA conducted and the Eskom Environmental Officer responsible for it, rather than a consistent improvement with time. Thus integration into the project process of environmental procedure is a complex process and it requires firstly that a company is reformed. Reform has subsequently begun to transpire in Eskom. This reform includes education of company employees, which in turn is linked to political will which is necessary to effect the changes required to apply a procedure such as the IEM guidelines. This study reviews the implementation of the IEM guidelines in Eskom during this important development phase. It therefore reflects on a key portion of the history of EIA implementation in this country. The study provides insight into organisational reform and the voluntary commitments required for successful implementation of EIA. Benefit can be drawn from this study for future implementation of EIA even though EIA legislation now exists, as some form of voluntariness, political will and organisational reform is always imperative for ETA's successful and effective implementation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

This dissertation reviews the principles of International River Basin Management and their application by the governments of Angola, Botswana and Namibia. The dissertation deals with the issues popularised by governments, water planners and international agencies that the twenty-first century's conflicts will be fought over water. Increasingly this concern is being used to justify new water-supply dams and river diversion projects. This is especially so in arid Southern Africa, the focus of this dissertation, where numerous major international water transfers are underway and many more are being planned. While Namibia's growing thirst is a serious problem, the story is more complicated than just too many basin states putting their straws into one glass. The growing conflicts over the Okavango's water use raise broader questions about ownership of common resources, and equity of access to those resources. Most southern African countries depend on primary natural resources to sustain economies and their people. The environmental issues are remarkably similar in countries within the region, and the economic, social and political fortunes of the individual countries are intertwined. Furthermore, the ways in which resources are being managed are similar and thus cause for common concern. In general, the ability of countries in the region to achieve sustainable development depends not on national policies but also on the commitment of neighbours to practice sound environmental management. This is because activities in one country can easily cause impacts on a neighbour and possibly result in "downstream" opportunity costs. This case study of the Okavango River Basin, a river facing prospective developments from riparian states Angola, Botswana and Namibia, attempts to find sustainable solutions to solving international resource conflict. In addition to outlining the possible future threats to the Okavango River, this study proclaims a number of recommendations in the way of declaring alternatives to Namibia's plans to extract water from the Okavango River. One such recommendation is the encouragement of Water Demand Management as an alternative to water transfer by Namibia. This management strategy is aimed at optimising the use of available water rather than developing new or extended supplies and as a result it has a vital role to play since it contributes to sustainable development rather than over exploitation of limited natural resources. The majority of large rivers in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) are shared by three or more countries, and as the region's water resources come under growing development pressure, the importance of establishing effective national and regional methods and institutions for sustainably managing these resources will increase greatly. From economic, ecological and human welfare perspectives, the Okav,ango River Basin is arguably one of the most important transboundary natural resources (TBNR) in the region. Owing to the basin's remoteness and history of conflict, the Okavango was spared much of the destructive developments that rivers in the region have suffered. As a result, the relatively pristine Okavango ecosystem continues to provide significant benefits to the region much as it has done for centuries. As we approach the new millennium, however, it is clear that the health of the Okavango River Basin is threatened as riparian states increasingly turn to the Okavango to support their growing populations and economies. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

This study set out to investigate habitat fragmentation and its implications for wildlife conservation. It focused on Emboreet Ward in the Arusha region of Tanzania, which is in close proximity to the Tarangire National Park. This area, traditionally occupied by the Maasai pastoralists, has undergone several changes, not least of which are changes in the local livelihoods in response to a need for cash and deterioration of state support for animal health care. Dominating these changes is a shift in livelihood strategies from pastoralism to a mix of pastoralism and cropping. Increasingly, land is being cultivated and agricultural opportunities are changing lifestyles, livelihoods and habitat integrity for wildlife. Fragmentation of habitats outside the national park has serious implications for the future of pastoralism and conservation, especially since some species of wildlife migrate seasonally between this park and the adjoining plains. It also has significance for the Maasai whose approach to domestic livestock management is deeply rooted in a culture that does not comfortably accord with the market economy. The study adopted a case study approach, was mainly qualitative, and relied on both primary and secondary data sources. Interviews played a critical part in sourcing primary data from the respondents. Documentary analysis was critical to gathering secondary data. The study shows the future of Tarangire National Park to be intricately woven into the complex and dynamic interaction between the changing economy, the responses of the Maasai whose culture separates them from the market economy, migrants into the area, and the government agencies whose intentions appear to be neither clearly expressed nor interpreted. The study concludes that empowerment lies at the heart of the envisaged change. This is shown to be a necessity for all stakeholders operating within a proposed integrating structure. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

The condition of a stream is often judged by the state of its banks. This, the lack of adequate advice for streambank rehabilitation, and the drive by legislation, particularly the National Water Act, 1998 (RSA Act no. 36 of 1998) and the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (RSA Act no. 107 of 1998), to restore South African riparian areas, created a need for more information into such systems. Identifying a gap in what we know about rehabilitating degraded streambanks led to the development of a decision support system for the selection of streambank rehabilitation techniques. The Streambank Rehabilitation Decision Support System, or SR-DSS, aims to provide riparian managers with advice on choice of technique at degraded streambank locations along a river system. Techniques were sought from the scientific literature and organised to recommend appropriate techniques for combating certain erosive processes. Rutherford et al. (1999) conclude that placing priority on sites of lower importance may be an inefficient manner of spending the resources at hand. Foreseeing this likelihood, a priority setting system was developed and based on the principles of Rutherfurd et al. (1999). These principles aim to prioritise human interests without compromising ecological interests. Along a given stream, the areas of degradation that compromise property will nearly always have the highest priority. Once these have been addressed, sites of ecological value are taken into consideration followed by sites that require substantial effort to restore. It is argued that sites taking substantial effort to restore have the least to 'loose' should they degrade further. To enable the use of these principles a site scoring system was developed, so that sites could be prioritised. This was based on the value and threat rating tables developed by Heron et al. (1999). It was soon realised that a framework was needed within which the above could be set. For this purpose, Kapitzke's (1999) planning and design procedure was adapted to form an eleven-step framework which would guide the rehabilitation venture from priority setting, to the treatment outcome. The rehabilitation approach was tested in the case of the Foxhill Spruit. The small size of the catchment allowed the different segments of the approach (framework, priority setting model, field assessment sheet and SR-DSS) to be tested in real world conditions. The approach was found to have a number of strengths. The framework brought to the attention of the user, the dominant forces at play at each site, and was useful in determining the recommendation given by SR-DSS. The priority setting model allowed sites to be arranged in order of priority, that, according to Rutherfurd et al. (1999), would be the most efficient in terms of ecological value maintained, and resources saved. The field assessment sheet was consistent in rating the degree of intervention required, and in each case directed the user to the appropriate sections in SR-DSS. SR-DSS recommended appropriate techniques that would match the erosive forces occurring at each site. Comparing the technique chosen by SR-DSS to techniques that may have been recommended instead substantiated this finding. The techniques chosen by SR-DSS were found to be superior. This approach considers all aspects of sound streambank rehabilitation and may be used to gain advice on small streams in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

In September 2000 water fluoridation became mandatory in South Africa. Since then water service providers like Umgeni Water (UW), a bulk water supply authority in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province of South Africa began the process of implementing the legislation. This study was undertaken to establish the spatio-temporal variations of fluoride concentrations in surface and ground waters within the Umgeni Operational Area, to establish whether these waters would require fluoridation or defluoridation to meet a fluoride concentration of 0.70 mglf, and to assess the potential impacts of water fluoridation. Baseline fluoride concentrations of surface and ground water: It was concluded that the fluoride concentration of all sample types (rivers, dams, water works raw and final waters, wastewater influent and effluents, and boreholes), except pollution point sources, is less than O.S; mglR, 50 percent of the time. Some rivers (Mshazi, KwaNyuswa, KwaNgcolosi,·Mshwati and the MgoShongweni) exhibited high fluoride concentrations, while someboreholes also exhibited high fluoride concentrations. Temporal Variations and Seasonality: There are seasonal variations in the fluoride concentrations for surface waters, with higher fluoride concentrations in winter than in summer (64 out of 125 occasions). This low fluoride concentration in summer can be attributed to the dilution effects caused by rainfall runoff. Identification of "Hot Spots": "Hot Spots", sites where the fluoride concentration exceeds 1 mglR are present within the study area, for surface and borehole water. For surface water, the MgoShongweni exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglRat least 75% of the time. The KwaNgcolosi and Mshwati exhibited fluoride concentrations In excess of 1mglR at least 25% of the time, while the Mshazi and the KwaNyuswa exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglR only 5% of the time. The storm water discharge below AECI had high fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mg/R at least 20% of the time and the concentrations exceeded the fluoride concentration for seawater (1.4 mglf) at least 5% of the time. Of the 286 boreholes sampled, 17 boreholes (6% of all boreholes sampled) had fluoride levels in excess oft mglf . The impacts of long term consumption of water from these boreholes could range from slight mottling of the dental enamel in sensitive individuals (boretioles JD26, C29, H19, CB7, 112/1, 69/5, Thembeni 108 and EC (Thembeni 105, Keats Drift boreholes 1 and 2). Spatial patterns and possible sources of high fluoride concentrations: With respect to spatial patterns, relatively high concentrations of fluoride (300 IJglR to 1000 IJglR) can be found in surface water in the Msunduzi river, the Mgeni river downstream of the Msunduzi confluence and along the coastal belt. No spatial patterns are evident with respect to borehole water. For surface water, high fluoride concentrations in the Mshazi, KwaNyuswa and the KwaNgcolosi streams (inflows to the Inanda dam) appear to be associated with the catchment geology. The ~igh fluoride concentrations in Mshwati and the MgoShongweni are most likely as a result of industrial activities in the respective catchments. For borehole water, high fluoride concentrations may be attributed to catchment geology. Additional fluoride dosaqe ' at water treatment works: Since the fluoride concentrations at the water works were low (mean ranging between 0.5 mglf to 0.38 mglf) , fluoride would need to be added to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£ . For most of the water works, the additional fluoride (sodium fluoride) requirement to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£, ranged from 1.201 kglMRto 1.555 kg/MR. For the water works, Imfume and Umzinto, the additional fluoride , requirement is 0.768 kg/MR and 0.109 kg/MR respectively. In final water, the fluctuations in fluoride concentrations observed would translate to continuous testing being required to maintain optimal dosing of fluoride. Comparison of influent and effluent fluoride concentrations at wastewater works: There was no evidence of fluoride removal at the Mpophomeni Wastewater Works . There was evidence of 22.4% fluoride removal at the DarvHI Wastewater Works possibly due to the activated sludge treatment process at the wastewater works. Future fluoride levels in surface water that will receive return flows: Once water fluoridation is implemented, the Darvill Wastewater Works would receive fluoridated return flows, and discharge its fluoride rich effluent into the Msunduzi river. The average monthly fluoride road discharged from Darvill Wastewater Works would increase from 0.23 tons to 1.46 tons, an additional 1.23 tons per month on the aquatic environment of the Msunduzi river. The sludge fluoride load, disposed to land, could increase from 4 056 tons/month to 27 863 tons/month, which implies an increase in the fluoride runoff potential from the sludge-lands to the Msunduzi river. Number of people in sensitive groups that could be affected by water fluoridation: A significant number of people in KZN could be sensitive to water fluoridation. This has been estimated to be at least one third of KZN's population that are HIV infected. Recommendations were made and the most important ones are as follows: In the light of the large number of people, one-third the population of KZN, that is HIV positive and therefore could be sensitive to fluoridated water, it is recommended that the South African legislation mandating water fluoridation be withdrawn. Examination of the most recent literature indicated a significant lack of confidence in the best available studies that researched the safety and efficacy of water fluoridation. In the light of this it is recommended that the South African Department of Health re-examine and withdraw its legislation that mandates water fluoridation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.