The study focuses on two World Heritage sites in KwaZulu-Natal (uKhahlambaDrakensberg Park and the Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park). It sets out to critically examine the social, economic and political aspects of natural heritage in the context of sustainability and contestation. How these heritage landscapes are managed, and in particular how decisions regarding its use and identity are taken, is the central issue under investigation. In particular, this research examines the how an understanding of stakeholder perceptions allows current management strategies to be assessed for their effectiveness and relevance to the stakeholders in the regions and the development of new management strategies which are relevant to stakeholder needs. In this regard, a central concern is to identify and evaluate the degree of participation in resource management, conservation and in direct ecotourism activities links to the heritage sites. Stakeholders will vary in their ability to influence decision-makers and they are also unlikely to gain or lose out equally from particular courses of action. These are all issues which need full consideration in approaches to sustainable tourism management. This study focused on the following stakeholders: neighbouring rural communities, tourists, accommodation personnel and tour operators. Questionnaire surveys were administered to each of the stakeholder groups identified above. Furthermore, participatory exercises (venn diagrams, resource mapping and problem ranking exercises) were conducted with focus groups. The study reveals heterogeneity within and between communities under study in relation to socio-economic aspects and perceptions regarding the Parks and levels of participation in activities linked to the Parks. In relation to heritage sites, the questions of ownership, transparency and accountability are particularly important. The study of ecotourism impacts and their management offers many opportunities to reflect on the importance of sustainability. The impacts, as outlined by the findings of the study, provides the opportunity for the implementation of biodiversity strategies linked to the establishment of conservation priorities, mobilising and establishing partnerships, identifying biodiversity threats and benefits, and providing incentives to conserve. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Cairo is a key location that is situated on the southern and eastern boundaries of the Mediterranean Basin, where summer tropospheric ozone levels are known to be elevated as a result of the persistence of a semi-stationary anticyclone that favours northerly flow from Europe, where anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursor gases are high. Strong levels of insolation, the absence of wet removal mechanisms, and low deposition velocities over the Mediterranean Sea further promote the summer enhancement of ozone. Ozone profiles at Cairo, recorded by MOZAIC (Measurement of OZone and wAter Vapor aboard In-service AirCraft) aircraft, were examined with a view to assessing the relative influence of a range of factors on the vertical distribution of tropospheric ozone. These included long-range transport of ozone and precursor gases from Europe, North America and Asia, assessed through back trajectory analysis with the aid of the HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single Particle Integrated Trajectory) modelling programme. The influence of local pollution sources was determined using local pollution monitoring data, satellite measurements of nitrogen dioxides (N02) and MOZAIC carbon monoxide (CO) data. Results show that lower and mid-tropospheric ozone values at Cairo are enhanced in summer relative to other seasons, with high upper tropospheric values occurring in February and April. The upper tropospheric variability is attributed to stratospheric intrusions during the movement of the tropopause which is consistent with the known springtime enhancement due to stratospheric-tropospheric exchange (STE). The lower tropospheric summer enhancement is linked to the effects of local pollution and polluted air masses originating from Europe. This summer ozone enhancement extends to a height of 8 km, which is fairly unusual for the region. The mid-tropospheric ozone enhancement appears to be a unique feature observed over Cairo, as other Mediterranean cities such as Athens, Greece usually display peaks in the upper and lower troposphere only. Therefore this enhancement is of considerable interest as it is unique to the region. iii In the mid-troposphere mean ozone values in summer (JJA) range between 70-80 ppbv, with values approaching 100 ppbv on individual days. Investigations into the probable causes of this enhancement suggest that the enhanced ozone is not created in the midtroposphere due to low levels of ozone precursor gases occurring in the mid-troposphere. Further, convective uplift of near-surface ozone is unlikely to occur as local pollution is confined to below 1000 hPa. It is therefore suggested that the enhanced ozone in the midtroposphere is being brought into the region by the long-range of polluted air masses from distant sources. Hierarchical classification of ozone profiles using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 11, 2001) programme allowed for the determination of least and most polluted profiles to emerge, which when related to air mass origins, highlights the significant role of long-range transport to mid-tropospheric ozone summer enhancement. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

Many rural households in southern Africa rely on a range of woodland resources for their livelihoods. In addition to direct use values, rural households also obtain indirect use benefits from the woodlands resources. These include ecological services such as soil protection and nutrient cycling; and social values such as shade and aesthetic values. The value of woodland resources to rural households in southern Africa has been researched extensively. Most of these studies assess direct use values, which are expressed in monetary terms. In contrast, there are fewer studies that assess indirect use values of woodland resources, and even fewer studies that assess non-monetary values. Non-monetary valuation is important to add to the knowledge gained through monetary valuation studies. This study was undertaken as part of a national investment by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) on Sustainable Woodlands Utilization and Management in the country. The aim of this study was to establish monetary and non-monetary values associated with indirect use benefits of woodland resources in three rural villages in northern KwaZulu-Natal. A pilot study was undertaken to pre-test the data collection techniques before the main survey. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were used to investigate monetary and non-monetary values during the pilot study. Data collection techniques involved interviews using semi structured questionnaires, direct observation, group discussions and resource mapping. The pilot study established that, due to its inherent properties, CVM was not the best method for this particular context (rural area in a developing country). In comparison, PRA techniques were more useful in obtaining meaningful data on the value of indirect-use benefits of woodlands. The main survey was undertaken using PRA techniques that included, in addition to the techniques used during the pilot study, contingent ranking. Interpretive categorization was used to analyze qualitative data. Quantitative data analysis involved the description of data, and results presented using descriptive statistics, tables and graphs. Excel spreadsheets were used for data storage and processing. The study established that rural households were acutely aware of the indirect-use benefits of woodland resources. Respondents were able to describe indirect use benefits in terms of social functions and ecological services provided by woodlands. Age, gender and remoteness of village seem to influence the value assigned to the identified woodland benefits. Ranking of the indirect use benefits revealed higher values for ecological services compared to social functions. Female respondents generally assigned greater values for both ecological and social services, compared to their male counterparts. All respondents concurred that the contribution that woodlands make to their livelihoods is Significant. The aim of the study was to investigate monetary and non-monetary values of indirect use benefits of woodland resources. The first part of the aim was not achieved, due to the incompatibility of the CVM to the study area (illiterate and semi-literate respondents in a rural setting). In terms of non-monetary values the study succeeded in demonstrating that rural households value woodland services highly, through their contribution to their livelihoods and well-being. The study concluded that the entire contribution of woodland resources to rural households is still not fully comprehended. To ensure the sustainability of woodland resources, the need to fully understand their contribution to rural livelihoods remains. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Violence and crime are amongst the most difficult of the many challenges facing South Africa. There is widespread concern in all segments of society about persistent and widespread violence and crime. The central aim of the study is to critically examine the socio-economic and environmental perceptions and impacts of violence and crime in residential areas in Durban, South Africa, by utilizing specific case studies. This study contributes to understanding the socio-economic and environmental perceptions of crime and violence at the local level. The actual and perceived spatial distribution and understanding of violence and crime ronn a critical focus of this study. This study adopts a multi-conceptual framework (drawing from the psychological/behavioural perspective, political economy approach and rational perspective of physical environment and crime) that coalesces several themes relating to crime and violence including historical contexts, policy frameworks, stakeholder analyses, environmental aspects, economic facets, distributional concerns as well as social and cultural dimensions. The focus of the study in terms of primary data collection was Durban. Within this area the specific residential localities (from infoffilal settlements to upper income areas) were chosen from the lnnerwest sub-region. The four specific communities/localities chosen reflect the residential settlement type and socio-economic differentiation prevalent in the area as well as to some extent the historical residential classification on the basis of race. These localities are Westville (a historically White, upper income area), Reservoir Hills (a historically Lndian, middle income area), Cleffilont (a historically African, working class township) and the Palmiet and New Germany Road in informal settlements. The case studies reflect a cross-section of experiences contrasting institutional dynamics as well as socio-economic and spatial contexts and experiences. Both quantitative (questionnaire surveys) and qualitative (focus group discussions, key informant interviews and ranking exercises) methods were employed to collect primary data from the following stakeholders: residents, businesses, police, private security companies and community-based organizations/community forums. The main findings of the research were that perceptions of safety and security varied greatly depending on personal, socio-economic, and environmental/spatial factors. Gender, class and race emerged as key socio-economic aspects. Furthermore, violence and the threat of violence severely constrain and influence the movements and options of people. Respondents considered several areas within the communities, especially public spaces, to be unsafe. Respondents, especially those who could afford to do so, used a range of security measures. This study shows that acts of violence and crime need to be understood in their environmental contexts inclusive of the locational/spatial, social, economic and political dimensions. An examination and greater understanding of the socio-economic and spatial manifestations of crime and violence is paramount to develop safe and secure environments. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

Urbanised and industrial coastal areas in South Africa are most vulnerable to the effects of marine pollution, and the Kwa-Zulu Natal coastline is particularly at risk. The mussels Perna perna, from a polluted (Isipingo Beach) and unpolluted (Park Rynie) site, and Brachidontes semistriatus were evaluated for their use as potential bioindicator organisms. The mussels were subjected to increasing copper concentration treatments to asses the following biomarker responses: cardiac activity, lysosomal membrane stability, malate dehydrogenase enzyme (MDH) activity and body condition index. Brachidontes semistriatus exhibited significant variations in biomarker responses only when exposed to higher Cu dosages, whereas P. perna from Park Rynie displayed distinct changes in heart rate, lysosomal membrane stability and MDH activity with increasing contaminant exposure. Perna perna from Isipingo Beach displayed significant biomarker variation in cardiac activity and lysosomal membrane stability, however differences in MDH activity were only evident at the highest Cu concentration of 100 mg.L-1. Both species from the different Cu treatments failed to show any significant changes in body condition indices due to the limited time of contaminant exposure. The mussel P. perna was therefore selected as a suitable biomonitoring species, and cardiac activity, lysosomal membrane stability and body condition index were chosen as reliable biomarkers for the study. Native P. perna from KZN responded to a distinct pollution gradient along the coastline by displaying significant bradycardia, reduced lysosomal membrane stability, poor condition indices and high heavy metal tissue concentrations. Durban, Isipingo and Umkomaas were singled out as the most contaminated sites along the coast, and Zinkwazi and Park Rynie as the least polluted. In addition, significant correlations between tissue and sediment metal concentrations suggest that the species is an effective heavy metal bioaccumulator of Cd, Pb, Zn, Cr and Fe. Similar spatial trends in seawater and mussel tissue concentrations in Durban Harbour were identified. Stations in the port located nearest to the freshwater inputs and stormwater drains displayed the highest metal concentrations in tissue and seawater, as well as adverse biomarker responses from transplanted P. perna. These results suggest that Durban Harbour is strongly influenced by tidal exchange and contaminated freshwater inflow entering the harbour. It was also found that reproduction imposes a considerable effect on P. perna body condition as spawning events in winter months result in pronounced body mass loss. The study concluded that P. perna is a highly effective bioindicator species, and cardiac activity, lysosomal membrane stability and body condition index can successfully be employed in marine pollution monitoring programmes. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

The limited range of garrick/leervis Lichia amia, its popularity as a gamefish to all sectors of the marine recreational linefishery and the degradation of many estuaries which function as nurseries for this species, has aroused concern about the stock status of this species. In addition, other than a preliminary investigation conducted by ORI in 1992, relatively little research has been undertaken on this important recreational species. Considering the recreational value of L. amia and the need to provide a scientific basis for its management, a comprehensive stock assessment was required. This study therefore investigated the biology and stock status of L. amia off the South African coast. Through ad hoc biological sampling undertaken from 1978-2007 and validation of growth by means of OTC marking, the growth of the L. amia population was best described as: Lt=1206mmfl(1-e-20[t+1.10 years]). Growth was also determined using tag-recapture and length frequency data. The tag-recapture data was further utilized in illustrating the movement behaviour of L. amia. Trends in catches were determined from the analysis of catch and effort data from the National Marine Linefish System (NMLS) and Boat Launch Site Monitoring System (BLSMS) databases. This showed a decreasing trend in the CPUE of L. amia along the KZN coast over time for all sectors of the KZN marine recreational linefishery investigated. The growth parameter estimates from the length-at-age data were used in undertaking a per-recruit assessment of L. amia. The results of the spawner-biomass-per-recruit (SBPR) model indicate that L. amia is at 14% of its unfished level. According to the South Africa.s Linefish Management Protocol (LMP), the L. amia stock has thus collapsed and appropriate management options to rebuild the stock are discussed. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2008.

Invertebrates are suffering the greatest species loss in the current biodiversity crisis. These animals perform essential ecosystem functions upon which humanity depends yet they are largely ignored m conservation efforts. The main challenges facing invertebrate conservationists, in terms of raising public awareness, are to change common negative perceptions regarding invertebrates and to apply some form of value to them. Conservation efforts can be improved by raising public awareness of, and appreciation for, invertebrates in the context of ecotourism. Current levels of inclusion of invertebrates in ecotourism activities were gauged, using qualitative research methods of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. The response of tourists to the concept of the inclusion of both western/scientific and indigenous knowledge regarding invertebrates into current and planned ecotourism activities was determined using the quantitative research method of a structured questionnaire. Canvassing of tourists was done at a popular ecotourism destination (Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Nature Reserve) and 121 questionnaires were completed. In addition to tourists the opinions and attitudes of a range of people working in ecotourism and conservation were examined via semi-structured interviews. The respondents were specifically selected according to the positions they held in the ecotourism and conservation field and a total of eight people in management, ten ecotourism guides and seven ecotourism trainers were interviewed. The findings revealed that there is currently negligible information regarding invertebrates in ecotourism activities. There was an overwhelmingly positive response from tourists, with 95% indicating that they would like to see information regarding invertebrates included in ecotourism activities. Ecotourism service providers, such as tour guides and those in conservation management also indicated a positive attitude toward the concept. There is thus potential to increase levels of information regarding invertebrates in ecotourism and it is recommended that ecotourism include a focus on invertebrates. Recommendations on how to address the lack of invertebrate information in ecotourism are provided and examples of the types of invertebrates to include in specific ecotourism activities are given. Including a focus on invertebrates in ecotourism will serve the multiple purposes of placing value on invertebrates; raising public awareness and hence the conservation status of invertebrates, and finally will increase the scope of ecotourism. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Nearly half of the world's population lives in tropical and temperate climates where they may be at risk from one or more vector borne diseases. Approximately 2.1 billion people, living in more than 100 countries are at risk from malaria. While the malaria situation has improved in some places, the overall prevalence in Africa, Asia and the Americas continues to deteriorate. This has led nations, institutions, organisations and agencies including the World Health Organisation to call for development of new and innovative approaches to its surveillance and control. In nature, maintenance of malaria transmission involves a complex interaction between the mosquito vector, the human host, the disease organism, and both the internal and external environments. An understanding of this complex relationship is the key to the prevention, control and eventual eradication of malaria. Malaria prevention and control programmes do not only have to be based on sound knowledge of how these factors interrelate, but also on an application of the political will of the concerned authorities. This study attempts to identify some determinants of malaria and to characterise it in epidemiological zones in Zambia. The study aims at contributing to the body of knowledge that would support implementation of an evidence-based national malaria programme. This study has come at an opportune time when there is renewed focus on malaria prevention and control globally. It is hoped that these aspects of the malaria programme in Zambia will not have to be rewritten in the foreseeable future, instead will be improved upon in order to progress to the delivery of quality assured malaria services as close to the family as possible based on the principles of community-health partnerships. The study is presented in a series of chapters; each developed as a follow up to the previous one and forms a bridge to the next. In this way, it enables the reader to build a relatively complete picture of the malaria situation in the country. However, some repetitions could not be avoided with regard to descriptions of study sites. In the chapters dealing with health systems and quantification of malaria risk, the country (Zambia) is taken as the study site. The remaining sections are based on specific sites, selected on the basis of their representing different aspects of the malaria situation in the country. Mapping of households and other referral points provided the basis upon which a Malaria Information System would in future be built. One of the two study sites was special because most of the previously conducted malaria research in Zambia has been conducted at this site. While the other was not only new in terms of malaria research, it also represented locations in the high rainfall zone in Zambia. The introductory chapter sets out the general principles of Geographical Information System (GIS), malariology, entomology, and health systems. The chapter reviews the current global burden of malaria including its implications for economic development of endemic subSaharan African countries, and discusses progress made in the light of drug and insecticide resistance and the changing global weather patterns. This section examines the position of the African continent in relation to the global malaria eradication era and the possible reasons why it was excluded from the global malaria eradication campaign of 1956-1969. It goes on to analyse new obstacles being faced in rejuvenating global interest in malaria programmes, starting with Primary Health Care through to the principles of Roll Back Malaria (RBM). It also emphasizes special Africa-specific initiatives related to malaria, such as the MARA/ARMA collaboration which (through the use of GIS) is providing a basis for evidence-based decision making. The fist chapter deals with the historical aspects of malaria control in Zambia. It traces how malaria was successfully controlled over a period of 46 years. It starts with a rural set up where copper mineral deposits were discovered. From there it traces the history of malaria control spanning almost eight decades to the present day. It outlines the major milestones in both the malaria programme and in the political history of the country; from a British protectorate , through Federation to the present day nation, Zambia. The chapter demonstrates how malaria can be controlled in an intense transmission situation, using a combination of simple and relatively cost-effective interventions. It also demonstrates that political will is an essential element to disease control. The second chapter examines the role of health systems in the delivery of quality, efficient and cost-effective services to the population. It examines the adequacy of health services in the light of time-limited Roll Back Malaria goals, according to the Abuja Declaration of 2000. This chapter analyses the capacity of the local health system to deliver on its health vision of taking quality assured health services (Malaria services) as close to the family as possible. Together, these goals are examined in terms of population accessing the facilities within 30 minutes' walking distance. Chapter three focuses on identifying factors that facilitate or hinder households acquiring and using Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) in the same locality. Specifically, distance of households to some reference points is examined. Also the effects of social, economic and educational status of heads of households are analysed. Together all parameters are analysed statistically to isolate the important reasons why some homes acquire ITNs while others do not. The study concludes with an analysis of the importance of ITN s in averting malaria among users. Some anecdotal evidence resented on the value of ITN s in reducing malaria incidence in the general population is presented. GIS is employed in the fourth chapter to produce a malaria endemicity risk map for the country. It employs population Plasmodjum faldparum infection rates. It proposes stratification and compares it with existing expert opinions and the climate-based Fuzzy Logic predictive model. The resultant malaria risk map is verified against existing maps and expert opinions. The chapter then discusses application for local decision making on policy and action. Chapter number five is dedicated to identifying and studying the bionomics of malaria vectors at two sites. It reviews existing literature on this subject, from 1929 to date. It identifies possible malaria vectors, their behaviour and ecology at two sites representing two extreme situations of malaria endemicity in the country. The combination of Anopheles vector densities and their reliance on temperature and rainfall are analysed and the implications discussed. The chapter also looks at possible ways forward for the country in the light of the paucity of information in this respect. P. faldparum infection rates are estimated together with their entomological inoculation rates and possible implications for malaria transmission potential. The final section (chapter six), highlights the major lessons and their implications for global goals and local health policies. It also outlines the way forward chapter by chapter. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Sea level rise and coastal erosion are two processes which may result in major problems for coastal cities around the world. This is particularly true for Southern and Eastern African cities as they struggle to meet their developmental challenges in addition to sea level rise and coastal erosion. This thesis focuses on three main areas, the analysis of the rates of sea level from tide gauges in the region, the extent of wave run-up on the beach and the development of a simple technical and management framework that managers can apply to assess coastal hazards. The rates of sea level rise in the region vary, Zanzibar, Tanzania reflects a falling sea level at -3:64 plus minus 1:62 mm per year while the highest rate of sea level rise at Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territories is +4:35 plus minus 7:61 mm per year. The rate of sea level rise are dependent on the complex interactions of vertical crustal movements, barometric pressure changes, and the warm Agulhas and cooler Benguela currents. Wave run-up is an indicator of the hazard zone. A number of international wave run-up models were assessed for use in this region and were found to be unsuitable. A new wave run-up model was developed which uses the bathymetric profile as opposed to the beach slope in predicting wave run-up. This model uses the equation Rx H0 = C S2=3, where Rx is the wave run-up height above Still Water Level, H0 is the significant wave height at the closure depth, C is dimensionless coefficient where median values are described by C ' 7:5, S is a representative nearshore slope (S = (hc=xh)). hc is the closure depth and xh the horizontal distance from the waters edge to the closure depth. An assessment of the impacts of sea level rise and wave run-up was undertaken based on a detailed case study of the Durban coastline. The results were incorporated into a standalone freeware viewer tool enabling this information to be accessible to planners, decision makers and the general public. The research has identifed several types of shoreline that are vulnerable to coastal erosion, sea level rise and extreme wave events. Recommendations as to what adaptation measures could be undertaken for the different beach types are proposed. With this information coastal managers and decision makers charged with managing shorelines can take the first step in understanding and adapting into the future. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

This research investigates the potential impacts that a change in land-use to plantation forestry from an area of extensive I intensive agriculture has on helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris populations. A comprehensive literature review revealed that the likely limiting factors for guineafowl in plantation forestry areas include the age of plantation, proportion of home range planted to timber and the availability of winter forage species. Initially the process of planting creates a disturbance that encourages favourable weed and grass species for guineafowl that provide winter forage and suitable groundcover. Up to five years since planting, habitat conditions are favourable and guineafowl populations increase. After five years, the shading effects from the Pinus spp. results in a decrease in species richness of the understorey vegetation as well as a decrease in the abundance of crucial winter species such as Cyperus esculentus. As a result populations of guineafowl start to decline. Guineafowl populations that have plantations older than ten years within their home range need to have diets supplemented by grain maize, or a suitable grain substitute, unless there is adequate unplanted area to meet their nutritional needs. The rationale for this study originates through a mixed response in growth rates of guineafowl flocks observed in the study area. The study-site for this research is North East Cape Forests, near the town of Ugie. Land-use in this area was an extensive beef and sheep grazing farmland. Up until recently, much of the area has been transformed into plantation forestry, planted to predominantly Pinus species. The effect of a change in land-use to plantation forestry on guineafowl populations is largely unknown and this research therefore presents the first attempt to gain an understanding of how plantation forestry can impact on guineafowl populations. This research forms the final component to the degree of Master of Environment and Development: Protected Area Management. It is a mini-dissertation with an expected duration of six months. The research has been written up as two separate components. Component A includes a study of the literature and methods used in the dissertation. Component B presents the findings of the research with conclusions and recommendations. Component B has been written and formatted for submission according to the standards required by the South African Journal of Wildlife Research. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.