This study investigates the through-thickness behaviour of carbon/epoxy laminates. A through-thickness compression test regime was conducted utilising three specimen designs, which are waisted, hollow cylindrical and cubic specimens. An assessment and comparison of each specimen is given regarding their advantages and disadvantages in characterising the through-thickness response of [+45/-45/90/0]s quasi-isotropic AS4/8552 carbon/epoxy laminates. A finite element (FE) study of the three specimens is presented which results in specimen geometries that provided a macroscopically uniform stress response throughout the gauge length whilst also minimising other features such as stress concentrations. Further to the final geometries being presented, the method of manufacture for the laminate and machining processes for each of the specimens is given. A mesoscopic FE study is presented relating to the free-edge effects induced by through-thickness loading in quasi-isotropic laminates. The results presented show that free-edge effects will be present in the test specimens and will have a larger overall impact on the hollow cylindrical specimen. The free-edge effects also increase the stress concentrations present in the corners of the waisted and cubic specimens. Characteristic stress strain curves are presented for each specimen with strain data taken from post yield strain gauges attached to the specimens. The extracted initial Young's modulus Ez and Poisson's ratios vzx and vzy show a small variation between specimens. The strength values for the three specimens vary greatly with the waisted specimen being the strongest and cylindrical specimen the weakest, indicating that the chosen specimen geometry dominates failure. The experimental data will be used for test case 12 in the Second World Wide Failure Exercise (WWFE-II). A study is presented to predict the effective elastic properties of Z-pinned laminates. The materials under consideration are UD and [0/90]s cross-ply AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy laminates. Estimates on the effective properties are provided by two FE approaches and two analytical bounding approaches; namely Voigt and Reuss bounds and Walpole's bounding theory. The two FE approaches are based on extreme assumptions about the in-plane fibre volume fraction in the presence of Z-pins and provide a tight range of values in which the real result should lie. Furthermore, whilst the bounding methods are simple and in the case of Young's moduli produce very wide bounds the selection of the suitable bound result can lead to a good estimate in comparison with the FE data. Typically the best bounding method result for each elastic property is within 10% of the FE predictions.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation is a computational tool for exploring flow applications in science and technology. Of central importance in many flow scenarios is the accurate modelling of the boundary layer phenomenon. This is particularly true in the aerospace industry, where it is central to the prediction of drag. Modern CFD codes as applied to modelling aerodynamic flows have to be fast and efficient in order to model complex realistic geometries. When considering viscous flows, the boundary layer typically requires the largest part of computational resources. To simulate boundary layer flow with most current CFD codes, requires extremely fine mesh spacing normal to the wall and is consequently computationally very expensive. Boundary layer modelling approaches offer considerable computational cost savings. One boundary layer method which proved to be very accurate is the two-integral method of Drela (1985). Coupling the boundary layer solution to inviscid external flow, however, is a challenge due to the Goldstein singularity, which occurs as separation is approached. This research proposed to develop a new method to couple Drela‟s two-integral equations to a generic outer flow solver in an iterative fashion. The study introduced an auxiliary equation, which was solved along with the displacement thickness to overcome the Goldstein singularity without the need to solve the entire flow domain simultaneously. In this work, the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations were used for the outer flow. In the majority of previous studies, the boundary layer thickness was simulated using a wall transpiration boundary condition at the interface between viscous and inviscid flows. This boundary condition was inherently non-physical since it added extra mass into the system to simulate the effects of the boundary layer. Here, this drawback was circumvented by the use of a mesh movement algorithm to shift the surface of the body outward without regridding the entire mesh. This replaced the transpiration boundary condition. The results obtained show that accurate modelling is possible for laminar incompressible flow. The predicted solutions obtained compare well with similarity solutions in the case of flat and inclined plates, and with the results of a NACA0012 airfoil produced by the validated XFOIL code (Drela and Youngren, 2001). Copyright / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / unrestricted

Changes occur to the mandible with dental loss and senescence. However, the influence that these changes have on sex and ancestry estimations remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of dental loss and senescence on changes in mandibular morphology. The outcome has implications for both forensic anthropology and restorative dentistry. The study sample consisted of 717 mandibles consisting of both male and female South Africans of African (SAA) and European ancestry (SAE). To minimise the effects of variation in dentition amongst sex-ancestry groups, the sample included individuals with a spectrum of tooth loss patterns, namely efficient and inefficient occlusions as well as no occlusions. Dentition was considered efficient when the remaining teeth in occlusion were evenly distributed between the sides. Linear measurements as well as geometric morphometric shape analyses were performed. Shape analyses of the complete mandible were performed on models from digitised landmarks by using a MicroScribe G2. Detailed shape analyses of the ramus and chin area as well as measurements of the cortical thickness at specific sites were executed on images generated by cone beam computed tomography (CBCT). A comprehensive assessment of changes in shape, size and cortical thickness of the mandible with age and dental loss were made. Shape and size differences of the mandible were evaluated for discriminant abilities between sex and ancestry groups. Although most dimensions decreased with tooth loss, the greatest impact was noted in the loss of alveolar bone. The mandibular angle increased minimally in size when a few teeth were lost, but recovered to some extent with further tooth loss. The cortical thicknesses at the mental foramen lingually as well as in the midline in females, were relatively spared with tooth loss. Male individuals of SAA were often the most resilient to tooth loss. In general external linear dimensions were maintained with age despite tooth loss. Conversely, measurements of cortical bone thickness decreased slightly, but could have been influenced by dental loss. The shape of the chin and gonial area was more affected by aging in SAE. The sex and ancestry discriminant ability of the linear dimensions when considered collectively approximated 90%, in general improving further when tooth loss was taken into account. All linear measurements were smaller in females and in general tooth loss accentuated sex differences. SAA exhibited greater dimensions, apart from maximum ramus height, bigonial breadth and cortical thickness at the gonion. The mental tubercles were more prominent than the pogonion in SAE (square chin) and vice versa in individuals of SAA (pointed chin). The gonial area in individuals of African ancestry was broad and more convex and the gonial eversion more prominent with a more upright ramus. Discriminant qualities of the gonial shape for sex in individuals of African ancestry reached 90% within dentition groups. Ramus flexure and chin shape were not found to be useful in sex estimation. In conclusion, this research elucidated the effects of tooth loss and senescence on the morphology of the mandible for the forensic anthropological setting. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Anatomy / PhD / Unrestricted

[EN] «Study of neural networks and quadrupole models for the solution of the inverse problem in non-destructive testing by eddy currents. Application control of thickness on metal surfaces with multilayer protection» Abstract Currently the use of test methods using eddy current testing has become widespread in the industry, not only in the field of non-destructive testing, to study the behavior of cracks in components subject to fatigue and to detect failures metal internal structure, but also as measuring instruments to obtain information from the characterization of materials, composition of the surface layers, surface oxidation extent of the thickness of the surface layers treated for hardening. However, the application of currents induced to meet sizing surface layers can be solved by direct problem but not the reverse, obtained from measurements of electromagnetic parameters, the dimensions of the laminated layers on the metal surface. This unique case is trying to solve this thesis so that replaces modeling using different physical layers of the material, quadrupole or quadrupole elements, whose behavior can set the parallel appearing in induced surface currents metal under real conditions. For this, they have taken several sets of plates with different known thicknesses are measured and their characteristic impedances by suitable sensors. The results obtained are used to train an artificial neural network, and therefore should allow its use to solve the inverse problem, i.e., from readings measured as input to the neural network to obtain the dimensions wanted to check out. The work begins with a detailed study of the solutions to equations and harmonic electromagnetic fields for the model proposed. The method of the magnetic vector potential vector with Coulomb contrast conditions used. Signal propagation near the surface and in the border region are studied. The basic formulation of the induced currents is established and studied in detail two specific problems and their models, the finite thickness plate and a cylinder. However, this method of solving the equations of the problem is proposed by using numerical series in replacing the integrals with infinite upper limit. Results to calculate the resulting model parameters based on the obtained test frequency and for a model settled down. We proposes a simulation model ANSYS two solutions, the first a plane model is used PLANE53 and second dimensional model SOLID236. From the latter assay sensitivity of currents induced by benchmarking the environmental conditions change, permeability and conductivity are studied. A model similar to the propagation of a transmission line in telecommunications models for that quadrupoles are set and are daisy-chained signal is also proposed theoretical results are obtained even different frequencies and are used to show a method of measuring or control of different thicknesses. / [ES] Estudio de redes neuronales y modelos de cuadripolos para la solución del problema inverso en ensayos no destructivos, por medio de corrientes inducidas. Aplicación para el control de espesores en superficies metálicas con protección multicapa Resumen En la actualidad el uso de métodos de prueba empleando ensayos de corrientes inducidas se ha generalizado en la industria, no sólo en el campo de los ensayos no destructivos, para estudiar el comportamiento de las grietas en elementos sujetos a fatiga así como para detectar fallas en la estructura interna metálica, sino también como instrumentos de medida para obtener información de la caracterización de los materiales, composición de las capas superficiales, magnitud de la oxidación superficial, espesor de las capas superficiales tratadas para su endurecimiento. Sin embargo, la aplicación de corrientes inducidas para conocer el dimensionado de capas superficiales puede resolverse mediante el problema directo pero no así el inverso, obtener a partir de las mediciones de parámetros electromagnéticos, las dimensiones de las capas estratificadas en la superficie del metal. Este caso singular es el que trata de resolver esta tesis de manera que empleando un modelado que sustituye las distintas capas físicas del material, por elementos cuadripolares o cuadripolos, de cuyo comportamiento se puede establecer el paralelismo con que aparecen las corrientes inducidas en la superficie del metal en condiciones reales. Para esto, se han tomado varios juegos de placas con distintos espesores conocidos y se han medido sus impedancias características mediante sensores adecuados. Los resultados obtenidos sirven para entrenar una red neuronal artificial, y por tanto deben de permitir su empleo para resolver el problema inverso, es decir, a partir de las lecturas de la medición como entrada de la red neuronal obtener las dimensiones buscadas a la salida. Los trabajos se inician con un estudio detallado de las soluciones a las ecuaciones de campos electromagnéticos armónicos y para el modelo que se propone. Se usa el método vectorial del potencial vector magnético con las condiciones de contraste de Coulomb. Se estudian la propagación de señales en las proximidades de la superficie y en la región frontera. Se establece la formulación básica de las corrientes inducidas y se estudian con detalle dos problemas concretos y sus modelos, el de una placa de espesor finito y el de un cilindro. Con todo ello se propone un método de resolución de las ecuaciones del problema mediante el empleo de series numéricas en la sustitución de las integrales con límite superior infinito. Se obtienen resultados para el cálculo de los parámetros resultantes en función de la frecuencia de ensayo y para un modelo establecido. Se propone un modelo de simulación ANSYS con dos soluciones, en la primera se emplea un modelo plano PLANE53 y en la segunda un modelo tridimensional SOLID236. A partir de este último se estudia la sensibilidad del ensayo de corrientes inducidas por comparación de resultados al modificar las condiciones del medio, permeabilidad y conductividad. También se propone un modelo de propagación de señal similar al de una línea de transmisión en telecomunicaciones, para ello se establecen modelos de cuadripolos y se conectan en cadena, los resultados teóricos se obtienen par las distintas frecuencias y sirven para mostrar un método de medida u control de los distintos espesores / [CAT] «Estudi de xarxes neuronals i models de quadripols per a la solució del problema invers en assajos no destructius, per mitjà de corrents induïts. Aplicació per al control de gruixos en superfícies metàl·liques amb protecció multicapa» Resum En l'actualitat l'ús de mètodes de prova emprant assaigs de corrents induïts s'ha generalitzat en la indústria, no només en el camp dels assajos no destructius, per estudiar el comportament de les esquerdes en elements subjectes a fatiga així com per detectar falles en l'estructura interna metàl·lica, sinó també com a instruments de mesura per obtenir informació de la caracterització dels materials, composició de les capes superficials, magnitud de l'oxidació superficial, espessor de les capes superficials tractades per al seu enduriment. No obstant això, l'aplicació de corrents induïts per conèixer el dimensionament de capes superficials pot resoldre mitjançant el problema directe però no així l'invers, obtenir a partir dels mesuraments de paràmetres electromagnètics, les dimensions de les capes estratificades en la superfície del metall. Aquest cas singular és el que tracta de resoldre aquesta tesi de manera que emprant un modelatge que substitueix les diferents capes físiques del material, per elements quadrupolars o quadripols, del comportament es pot establir el paral·lelisme amb què apareixen els corrents induïdes en la superfície del metall en condicions reals. Per això, s'han pres diversos jocs de plaques amb diferents gruixos coneguts i s'han mesurat les seves impedàncies característiques mitjançant sensors adequats. Els resultats obtinguts serveixen per entrenar una xarxa neuronal artificial, i per tant han de permetre la seva ocupació per resoldre el problema invers, és a dir, a partir de les lectures del mesurament com a entrada de la xarxa neuronal obtenir les dimensions buscades a la sortida. Els treballs s'inicien amb un estudi detallat de les solucions a les equacions de camps electromagnètics harmònics i per al model que es proposa. Es fa servir el mètode vectorial del potencial vector magnètic amb les condicions de contrast de Coulomb. S'estudien la propagació de senyals en les proximitats de la superfície hi ha la regió frontera. S'estableix la formulació bàsica dels corrents induïts i s'estudien amb detall dos problemes concrets i els seus models, el d'una placa de gruix finit i el d'un cilindre. Amb tot això es proposa un mètode de resolució de les equacions del problema mitjançant l'ús de sèries numèriques en la substitució de les integrals amb límit superior infinit. S'obtenen resultats per al càlcul dels paràmetres resultants en funció de la freqüència d'assaig i per a un model establert. Se proposa un model de simulació ANSYS amb dues solucions, en la primera es fa servir un model pla PLANE53 i en la segona un model tridimensional SOLID236. A partir d'aquest últim s'estudia la sensibilitat de l'assaig de corrents induïts per comparació de resultats en modificar les condicions del medi, permeabilitat i conductivitat. També es proposa un model de propagació de senyal similar al d'una línia de transmissió en telecomunicacions, per això s'estableixen models de quadripols i es connecten en cadena, els resultats teòrics s'obtenen bat les diferents freqüències i serveixen per mostrar un mètode de mesura o control dels diferents gruixos. / Corbí Cabrera, A. (2016). Estudio de redes neuronales y modelos de cuadripolos para la solución del problema inverso en ensayos no destructivos por medio de corrientes inducidas. Aplicación para el control de espesores en superficies metálicas con protección multicapa [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/63448 / TESIS

[pt] A deposição de parafina no interior de linhas de produção e transporte de petróleo é um dos problemas mais relevantes encontrados na indústria. A troca de calor entre o petróleo escoando nas linhas e o ambiente externo mais frio pode levar à deposição de parafina, causando o bloqueio parcial ou total com graves implicações econômicas. O monitoramento do crescimento dos depósitos no interior das linhas forneceria informação fundamental para a remoção periódica dos depósitos. As técnicas atualmente disponíveis para o monitoramento do crescimento de depósitos são limitadas e oferecem altos níveis de incerteza. No presente trabalho foi conduzido um estudo experimental com o objetivo de avaliar a utilização da técnica de ultrassom para a medição do crescimento de depósitos de parafina em linhas de petróleo. Foram propostos e avaliados quatro métodos de processamento do sinal ultrassônico: (i) reflexão do sinal na interface líquido-depósito, (ii) tempo combinado de propagação da onda nos meios líquido e no depósito, (iii) atenuação da amplitude do eco do sinal ultrassônico após a passagem no depósito, e (iv) atraso do sinal de eco após a passagem no depósito. Uma seção de testes foi especialmente projetada e construída para testes com formação do depósito de parafina de maneira controlada com monitoramento sincronizado entre uma câmera digital e as aquisições de ultrassom. Observou-se nos resultados que, o sinal não exibia a reflexão na interface solução-depósito, apenas atenuação das amplitudes e redução de seus tempos de propagação, impossibilitando o uso do primeiro método. Os demais métodos obtiveram resultados satisfatórios, quando comparados com as espessuras medidas opticamente, com destaque para o método da atenuação da amplitude do eco, que apresentou potencial para ser utilizado como ferramenta para monitorar a deposição de parafina em linhas de petróleo. / [en] Wax deposits in production and transportation lines is one of the most relevant problems for the industry. The heat exchange from the oil flowing through the lines with the colder outside environment may lead to wax deposition, causing partial or total blockage of the lines with severe economic consequences. The monitoring of the wax deposit growth in the interior of the lines would be a relevant piece of information for operational decisions regarding the frequency of wax removal. The techniques presently available for monitoring wax deposit growth display limited performance and offer high uncertainty levels. The present work conducted an experimental study with the objective of assessing the use of ultrasonic techniques for measuring wax deposit growth in pipelines. Four different techniques were proposed, namely, (i) a technique based on the reflection of the signal at the liquid-deposit interface, (ii) technique based on the combined propagation time of the ultrasound wave in the liquid and deposit phases, (iii) technique based on the amplitude attenuation of the ultrasonic echo after passing through the deposit, and (iv) a technique based on the delay of the ultrasonic echo after passing through the deposit. To this end, a test section was specially designed and constructed, allowing the controlled formation of wax the deposit from different wax solutions, which was monitored by a digital camera synchronized with the ultrasound data acquisitions. The results obtained indicated that, no reflection at the interface was detected, only the attenuation of the echo amplitudes and reduction in propagation time, precluding the use of the first technique. The remaining techniques presented satisfactory results when compared to the optically measured deposit thicknesses. The technique based on the attenuation of the echo amplitude presented to be potential tool to monitor wax deposit in petroleum lines.

abstract: Sedentary behavior and excessive weight gain have been proven to deteriorate many characteristics of muscle. Low muscular power and mass with excess fat mass are risk factors for a multitude of chronic conditions and functional disabilities. Resistance training (RT) has long been accepted as a rehabilitative method of maintaining or enhancing muscular performance and composition. There are various methods of determining lower extremity muscular power; however, isokinetic dynamometry has emerged as one of the most accurate and reliable methods in clinical and research settings. Likewise, various methods exist for determining muscle thickness; however, many of those methods are expensive and can expose individuals to radiation. Ultrasonography has emerged as an accurate and reliable alternative to measuring lower extremity muscle thickness. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of high-load/low-volume (HLLV) and low-load/high-volume (LLHV) RT on isokinetic knee extensor and flexor peak power in sedentary, RT naïve, overweight or obese men and women (Body Mass Index ≥ 25 kg/m2). Twenty-one subjects (n = 21) completed this study and were randomized into one of the following groups: control, a HLLV group that performed three sets of 5 repetitions for all exercises until volitional fatigue, and LLHV which performed three sets of 15 repetitions for all exercises until volitional fatigue. Subjects randomized to the RT groups performed full-body exercises routines on three non-consecutive days per week. Changes in isokinetic knee extensor and flexor peak power, quadriceps ultrasound muscle thickness, and right leg segment of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans were measured before and after the 12-week RT intervention. There were no significant differences found in group, time or, group by time interactions for knee extensor and flexor peak power using isokinetic dynamometry. Other than a group interaction for vastus intermedius muscle thickness (P=0.008), no significant interactions or differences were observed for any of the other variables tested. Based on the results of this study, neither high- nor low-load RT resulted in significant differences between intervention groups in peak power of the knee extensors and flexor, muscle thickness changes of the vastus intermedius, and vastus lateralis and, in the right lower extremity segmented body composition measures using DEXA. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Exercise and Wellness 2020

With large populations living in tropical regions of the world with volcanic substrates, understanding basalt weathering processes is vital. The Hawaiian Islands are an excellent natural analogue to study chemical weathering rates due to a uniform bedrock (basalt), large variations in rainfall, and varying ages across the islands. Laterite weathering profiles (LWP) develop over time through chemical weathering, where LWP thickness is influenced by many factors, including precipitation and time. Using the rapid, non-invasive horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method, LWP thicknesses can be estimated to constrain chemical weathering rates. Studying the laterite weathering profiles developed from basaltic bedrock of varying ages on Oahu (~2 Ma), Molokai (~1 Ma) and Kohala, Hawaii (~0.3 Ma) reveals three profiles in varying developmental stages. Over 200 HVSR soundings were collected on Oahu, Molokai, and Kohala. Shear wave velocity values of LWPs were determined by MASW (multichannel analysis of surface waves), and LWP thicknesses verified from geologic logs and outcrop. Oahu has thick LWPs compared to the other islands and shows a trend of increasing thickness with increasing precipitation across the island. The Molokai LWP follows a trend similar to Oahu, with a noticeable difference of thicknesses (20-40 m) at similar precipitation thresholds. Molokai presented a unique case, where the shear-wave velocity (Vs) boundaries between laterite and basalt were gradational for ~43% of HVSR datapoints, resulting in featureless frequency spectra that could not reliably model laterite-basalt boundary depths. The gradational nature of the LWP of Molokai is attributed to the young age of the island, and primary permeability properties of the thick, post-shield alkalic lavas. Molokai has an aerially average weathering rate of 0.02 to 0.04 m/ka. Kohala HVSR data show a newly developed LWP with varying LWP thickness within the same precipitation isohyet. LWPs on Kohala show a unique trend where LWP is thickest along the coast and is wedge shaped thinning out towards higher elevations. Each island differs in age and has its own unique LWP trends, with older islands tending to have deeper, more developed LWPs at similar precipitation ranges.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to describe the influence of individual operating parameters on thickness and temperature distribution of elastohydrodynamic contact under high slip ratio. In this work, the distribution of the lubricant film thickness is determined by optical interferometry and the temperature mapping in EHL contact is realized by infrared microscopy. Two optical filters were used to separate the radiation of contact surfaces and oil. Temperature of disk surface was measured using a sapphire disk with chromium layer that shielded radiation from ball and oil. The experimental device was modified to simulate the conditions of the various vectors between entrainment and sliding speed. The results extend existing information about behavior of EHL contact under high slip ratio conditions.

Master’s thesis deals with development of software application to calculate contact pressure in eleastohydrodynamic lubricated contact in order to use previously obtained data of the lubricating film thickness. The introduction contains a short overview of methods used for the study of film thickness and contact pressure. Custom work includes a contact pressure solution derived from a film thickness, a description of the developed software and analysis of algorithms used for its compilation. The last part deals with the verification of algorithm, application of software for calculating the contact pressure on the rough surface and analysis of the results. The conclusion includes a summary and possible application of software in practice.

This diploma thesis deals with the influence of the surface texturing of non-conformal surfaces at the friction coefficient. In the work were made adjustment of experimental apparatus for measuring friction in the contact between ball and flat disk. Friction coefficient was calculated by the size of the torque on the ball, which was measured by the torque sensor. For recording and processing signal from the sensor was designed software that makes it possible to measure the coefficient of friction for selected conditions (loading of contact, speed of rubbing surfaces and rolling-sliding conditions). Experiments were carried out with smooth and textured ball, glass, and steel disc at different speeds and rolling-sliding conditions. To determine the effect of the influence of the surface texturing at the friction coefficient the size of the coefficient of friction of smooth and textured ball was compared. It was found that the microtexture of the friction coefficient has little effect.