Jeder Mensch hat eine eigene, innere Uhr, die nicht immer synchron mit dem Tageslicht verläuft. Im Volksmund wird von „Eulen“ (Spätaufstehern) und „Lerchen“ (Frühaufstehern) gesprochen. Diese innere Uhr ist genetisch und beeinflusst zahlreiche Aspekte unseres Verhaltens, z.B. unsere präferierten Schlafenszeiten, sportliche Leistungsfähigkeit, sämtliche Organfunktionen und auch kognitive Leistungen. Es ist daher zu erwarten, dass auch die Sprachverarbeitung dem Einfluss der inneren Uhr unterliegt. Sprachliche Leistungen (Produktion und Verarbeitung) zählen zu den höheren kognitiven Funktionen und sind bisher selten auf rhythmische bzw. tageszeitliche Schwankungen wissenschaftlich untersucht worden. Daher ist das Ziel dieser Arbeit, solche Schwankungen in der sprachlichen Leistungsfähigkeit zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurde die Verarbeitung der anaphorischen Referenz gewählt. Zentrale Theorien aus der Linguistik beschäftigen sich mit der anaphorischen Referenz (Centering Theory, Optimality Theory in the Centering Theory, Accessibility Theory). Den meisten dieser Theorien ist gemeinsam, dass die Auswahl einer Anapher einem gewissen Ökonomieprinzip unterliegt: Wenn der Referent, auf den verwiesen werden soll, leicht zugänglich ist, dann sollte es sich um eine strukturell einfache Anapher handeln, z.B. um ein Personalpronomen. Demonstrativpronomen, oder die so genannten d-Pronomen (der, die, das), sowie Eigennamen, sind komplexere Anaphern und sollten verwendet werden, wenn der Referent weniger leicht zugänglich ist. Dieser Unterschied der Anaphern wurde auf seine tageszeitlichen Schwankungen in insgesamt 3 Experimenten untersucht: einer Feldstudie mit Schichtarbeitern, die in regelmäßigen Abständen während ihres Schichtdienstes Reaktionszeitaufgaben absolvierten und 2 EKP-Experimenten, die an zwei verschiedenen Tageszeiten durchgeführt wurden und so Aufschluss über tageszeitliche Unterschiede in der Hirnaktivität bei der Verarbeitung anaphorischer Referenzen geben sollen. / Everyone has an inner clock, which is not always synchronized with daytime and nighttime. The individual differences of the inner clock are genetically determined and can vary by up to 8 hours: “extreme larks wake up when extreme owls go to sleep” (Roenneberg, 2003). Many aspects of human life are influenced by circadian rhythms, e.g. physical performance, sleep/wake patterns, cell and organ functions and cognitive performance. Language processing, being a higher order cognitive function, is therefore also assumed to change over the course of the day. To date there are not many studies examining language performance and its diurnal variations. The goal of this thesis, then, is to study such variations in language processing with psycholinguistic methods, looking at the phenomenon of anaphoric reference processing. Many important linguistic theories address the question of how an anaphoric reference is processed (Centering Theory, Optimality Theory in the Centering Theory, Accessibility Theory). Most of these theories have an assumption of underlying economy in common: if the referent is easily accessible, the anaphor should be of a simple type, e.g. a personal pronoun. Demonstrative pronouns, such as the German d-pronouns (der, die, das), noun phrases and names are more complex anaphors which bear more information than a simple pronoun and should therefore refer to a less easily accessible antecedent. With three experiments this difference in anaphor type is examined for its diurnal changes: one behavioral field study in which shift workers were regularly tested during their shifts; and two ERP-experiments conducted at two different times of day. The ERP experiments demonstrate the diurnal changes in brain activity during anaphoric processing.

O exercício aeróbico é recomendado para indivíduos pré-hipertensos como prevenção da hipertensão arterial. Uma única sessão de exercício aeróbico promove hipotensão pósexercício. Estudos prévios com normotensos observaram menor hipotensão pós-exercício pela manhã do que ao final da tarde, porém, estes estudos não incluíram uma situação controle (sem exercício) e avaliaram apenas alguns determinantes hemodinâmicos desse fenômeno. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar e comparar a resposta da pressão arterial (PA) e seus determinantes hemodinâmicos e mecanismos autonômicos após uma sessão de exercício aeróbico realizado pela manhã (9:00 h) e ao final do dia (18:30 h), relacionando os resultados obtidos com os efeitos deste exercício em alguns marcadores neuro-hormonais do ritmo circadiano. Para tanto, 16 homens pré-hipertensos participaram de 4 sessões experimentais conduzidas em ordem aleatória: duas pela manhã e duas ao final do dia. Em cada fase do dia, foram realizadas uma sessão controle (repouso) e outra de exercício (cicloergômetro, 45 min, 50% VO2pico). A PA clínica, o débito cardíaco (DC), a resistência vascular periférica (RVP), o volume sistólico (VS), a frequência cardíaca (FC), a modulação autonômica cardíaca e vasomotora, a sensibilidade barorreflexa, o fluxo sanguíneo muscular, a capacidade vasodilatadora e as concentrações plasmáticas de noradrenalina e adrenalina foram medidos antes e após a intervenção em cada sessão. Além disso, a PA ambulatorial de 24 horas foi medida após as sessões e a concentração do metabólito da melatonina 6- sulfatoximelatonina produzida durante a noite anterior e posterior a cada sessão foi dosada. Os dados foram analisados pela ANOVA de 2 ou 3 fatores repetidos bem como pelo teste t ou teste de wilcoxon pareado e as associações foram calculadas pelas correlações de Pearson e Spearman. Foi aceito como significante P0,05. O exercício promoveu maior redução da PA sistólica pela manhã do que ao final do dia (-7±3 vs -3±4 mmHg, P<0,05), enquanto que a PA diastólica diminuiu de forma semelhante nestas duas fases do dia (-3±3 vs -3±3 mmHg, respectivamente). O DC diminuiu e a RVP tendeu a aumentar pós-exercício pela manhã, enquanto que estas variáveis não se modificaram pós-exercício ao final do dia (-460±771ml/min e +2,0±3,8 mmHg.min/l; +148±633ml/min e -1,4±2,8 mmHg.min/l, respectivamente). O VS diminuiu similarmente pós-exercício em ambas as fases do dia (- 12±15 vs. -9±10 ml, P<0,05), enquanto que a FC aumentou mais ao final do dia (+7±5 vs. +10±5 bpm, P<0,05). Isto ocorreu, devido ao exercício promover aumento do balanço simpatovagal (BF/AF) somente ao final do dia (+1,5±1,6, P<0,05), enquanto que a modulação vasomotora (BFPAS) pós-exercício diminuiu apenas pela manhã (-0,5±0,9 mmHg2, P<0,05). A sensibilidade barorreflexa espontânea, avaliada pelo do ganho médio de sequências positivas e negativas (SBR±) diminuiu pós-exercício nas duas fases do dia. O exercício não teve nenhum efeito sobre o fluxo sanguíneo e a capacidade vasodilatadora do braço, mas aumentou a capacidade vasodilatadora da perna apenas quando o exercício foi realizado ao final do dia (+116±172 ua, P<0,05). Nas medidas ambulatoriais, o exercício realizado ao final do dia reduziu a PA de sono e no período entre a 5 e 7ª hora pós-exercício. O exercício não teve nenhum efeito sobre os níveis de noradrenalina, adrenalina e 6-sulfatoximelatonina. Dessa forma, não houve correlações consistentes entre o efeito do exercício nos níveis hormonais e nas variáveis hemodinâmicas, autonômicas e ambulatoriais em nenhuma das fases do dia. Em conclusão, em pré-hipertensos, uma única sessão de exercício aeróbico reduz a PA pósexercício tanto quando o exercício é realizado pela manhã quanto ao final do dia, mas o maior efeito hipotensor é observado quando o exercício é realizado pela manhã para a PA sistólica. Este maior efeito hipotensor sistólico se deve à queda do DC pela manhã, que ocorre devido à diminuição do volume sistólico e menor aumento da FC pós-exercício nesta fase do dia, o que é provocado pelo menor aumento do balanço simpatovagal e se acompanha de menor aumento na capacidade vasodilatadora da musculatura ativa nesta fase do dia. O efeito hipotensor do exercício, no entanto, ao final do dia se reflete em redução da PA de sono pósexercício. Os efeitos do exercício aeróbico, realizado em diferentes fases do dia, sobre a PA clínica e ambulatorial e seus mecanismos hemodinâmicos, autonômicas e vasculares não se relacionam aos efeitos deste exercício sobre as catecolaminas e a produção de melatonina / Aerobic exercise is recommended for prehypertensive individuals to prevent hypertension development. An aerobic exercise bout promotes post-exercise hypotension, and previous studies with normotensive individuals reported that post-exercise hypotension is lower when exercise is conducted in the morning than in the evening. However, these studies have not included a control situation (without exercise) and only evaluated some hemodynamic determinants of this phenomenon. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze and to compare blood pressure (BP) responses and their hemodynamic determinants and autonomic mechanisms after an aerobic exercise performed in the morning (9:00a.m) and the evening 6:30p.m), associating these results with the effects of this exercise in some neurohormonal markers of circadian rhythms. For this, 16 prehypertensive men underwent 4 experimental sessions conducted in random order: two in the morning and two in the evening. At each time of day, one control (rest) and one exercise (cycle ergometer, 45 min, 50% of VO2peak) sessions were performed. Clinic BP, cardiac output (CO), systemic vascular resistance (SVR), stroke volume (SV), heart rate (HR), cardiac autonomic modulation, vasomotor modulation, baroreflex sensitivity, muscle blood flow, vasodilation and plasma concentrations of norepinephrine and epinephrine were measured before and after the intervention in each session. In addition, ambulatory BP was measured for 24 hours after the experimental sessions and the concentration of melatonin metabolite 6-sulfatoxymelatonin produced during the sleep before and after each session was assessed. Data were analyzed by 2 or 3-way ANOVA for repeated measures as well as by paired t test or Wilcoxon test, and the associations between variables were calculated by Pearson and Spearman correlations. P 0.05 was accepted as significant. Exercise produced a greater systolic BP reduction in the morning than the evening (-7 ± 3 -3 ± 4 mmHg, P<0.05), while the diastolic blood pressure decreased similarly in both times of day (-3±3 vs -3±3 mmHg, respectively, P<0.05). CO decreased and SVR tended to increased after exercise in the morning, while these variables did not change after exercise in the evening (-460 ± 771ml/min and +2.0 ± 3.8 mmHg.min/l; +148 633ml/min ± 2.8 and -1.4 ± mmHg.min/l , respectively). VS decreased similarly after exercise in both times of day (-12 ± 15 vs -9 ± 10 ml, P<0.05), while the HR increased more in the evening (+7 ± 5 vs +10 ± 5 bpm, P<0.05). This occurred because exercise increased sympathovagal balance only in the evening (+1.5 ± 1.6, P<0.05), whereas vasomotor modulation decreased only after exercise performed in the morning (-0.5 ± 0.9 mmHg2, P<0.05). Spontaneous baroreflex sensitivity, measured by the average gain of positive and negative sequences (± SBR) decreased after the exercise in both times of day. The exercise did not affect arm blood flow and vasodilatory capacity, but increased leg vasodilation when exercise was performed in the evening (+116 ± 172 au, P<0.05). In regard to ambulatory measures, the exercise performed in the evening reduced asleep BP and BP measured 5-7hr post-exercise. The exercise did not have any effect in the norepinephrine, epinephrine and 6- sulphatoxymelatonin. Thus, there was not consistent correlation between the effect of exercise in hormone levels and in hemodynamic, autonomic and ambulatory responses. In conclusion, in prehypertensives, a single bout of aerobic exercise reduces post-exercise BP regardless if the exercise is performed in the morning or in the evening, however a greater hypotensive effect is observed in the morning for systolic BP. This greater systolic hypotensive effect is due to the decrease in CO in the morning, related to a decrease in SV and a lower increase in HR after the exercise performed in the morning, which is caused by a lower increase in sympathovagal balance and is accompanied by a smaller increase in active muscles vasodilatory capacity in the morning. The hypotensive effect of evening exercise leads to a reduction in asleep BP. The effects of exercise, performed at different times of day, on postexercise clinic and ambulatory BP as well in its hemodynamic, autonomic and vascular determinants are not related to the effects of this exercise in catecholamines and melatonin production

L’objectif général de la présente thèse était d’étudier les effets et les facteurs d’influence des exercices et des programmes d’entraînement consistant en la co-contraction maximale isométrique volontaire (CCMIV) de l’articulation du coude : effet de l’entraînement en CCMIV sur la force explosive (Etude A), influence de l’heure habituelle d’entraînement (Etude B) et de charges additionnelles pendant les CCMIV (Etude C). Les résultats ont montré que 6 semaines d’entraînement en CCMIV peuvent améliorer simultanément la force maximale volontaire des muscles sans altération de la force explosive (Etude A et B) et indépendamment de l’heure habituelle d’entraînement (Etude B). Ces gains de force s’accompagnaient d’une augmentation de l’activité électromyographique des muscles agonistes (Etude A et B). Cependant, les résultats de l’étude B suggèrent que l’entraînement le matin s’accompagne d’un meilleur gain de la force musculaire, masquant ainsi les différences de force entre le matin et le soir. Par ailleurs, l’étude C a montré qu’une charge additionnelle (50% FMV) associée à une CCMIV modifie le pattern d’activation des muscles agonistes-antagonistes : augmentation du niveau d’activation des muscles agonistes et diminution de celui des antagonistes. Par conséquent, un programme d’entraînement en CCMIV avec charge additionnelle devrait comprendre des exercices avec charge pour les fléchisseurs et les extenseurs. De plus, les résultats de l’étude C suggèrent que le concept du fléchisseur équivalent pourrait être appliqué non seulement quand les fléchisseurs agissent comme agonistes mais aussi quand ils agissent comme antagonistes. / The aim of the present thesis was to study the effects and the influencing factors during the elbow joint maximal isometric voluntary co-contractions (MIVCC) exercises and training program: effect of the MIVCC training on the explosive force (Study A), influence of the time-of-day at which training was scheduled (Study B) and additional load during MIVCC (Study C). The results showed that six weeks of MIVCC training can simultaneously improve the maximum voluntary force, without altering the explosive force (Study A and B) and independently of the time-of-day at which training was scheduled (Study B). These improvements were accompanied by an increase in electromyography activity of agonist muscles (Study A and B). However, the results of study B suggest that morning training is accompanied by a higher strength improvement, by masking the strength differences between the morning and evening. Furthermore, the study C showed that additional load (50% MVF) associated with MIVCC modifies the activation pattern of the agonist-antagonist muscles: by increasing the activation level of the agonist muscles and decreasing the co-activation level of the antagonist muscles. Therefore, MIVCC training program with additional load should include exercises with load for flexor and extensor muscles. In addition, the results of the study C suggest that the concept of “flexor equivalent” may be applied not only when the flexor muscles acting as agonist but also when they acting as antagonist muscles.

O exercício aeróbico é recomendado para indivíduos pré-hipertensos como prevenção da hipertensão arterial. Uma única sessão de exercício aeróbico promove hipotensão pósexercício. Estudos prévios com normotensos observaram menor hipotensão pós-exercício pela manhã do que ao final da tarde, porém, estes estudos não incluíram uma situação controle (sem exercício) e avaliaram apenas alguns determinantes hemodinâmicos desse fenômeno. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar e comparar a resposta da pressão arterial (PA) e seus determinantes hemodinâmicos e mecanismos autonômicos após uma sessão de exercício aeróbico realizado pela manhã (9:00 h) e ao final do dia (18:30 h), relacionando os resultados obtidos com os efeitos deste exercício em alguns marcadores neuro-hormonais do ritmo circadiano. Para tanto, 16 homens pré-hipertensos participaram de 4 sessões experimentais conduzidas em ordem aleatória: duas pela manhã e duas ao final do dia. Em cada fase do dia, foram realizadas uma sessão controle (repouso) e outra de exercício (cicloergômetro, 45 min, 50% VO2pico). A PA clínica, o débito cardíaco (DC), a resistência vascular periférica (RVP), o volume sistólico (VS), a frequência cardíaca (FC), a modulação autonômica cardíaca e vasomotora, a sensibilidade barorreflexa, o fluxo sanguíneo muscular, a capacidade vasodilatadora e as concentrações plasmáticas de noradrenalina e adrenalina foram medidos antes e após a intervenção em cada sessão. Além disso, a PA ambulatorial de 24 horas foi medida após as sessões e a concentração do metabólito da melatonina 6- sulfatoximelatonina produzida durante a noite anterior e posterior a cada sessão foi dosada. Os dados foram analisados pela ANOVA de 2 ou 3 fatores repetidos bem como pelo teste t ou teste de wilcoxon pareado e as associações foram calculadas pelas correlações de Pearson e Spearman. Foi aceito como significante P0,05. O exercício promoveu maior redução da PA sistólica pela manhã do que ao final do dia (-7±3 vs -3±4 mmHg, P<0,05), enquanto que a PA diastólica diminuiu de forma semelhante nestas duas fases do dia (-3±3 vs -3±3 mmHg, respectivamente). O DC diminuiu e a RVP tendeu a aumentar pós-exercício pela manhã, enquanto que estas variáveis não se modificaram pós-exercício ao final do dia (-460±771ml/min e +2,0±3,8 mmHg.min/l; +148±633ml/min e -1,4±2,8 mmHg.min/l, respectivamente). O VS diminuiu similarmente pós-exercício em ambas as fases do dia (- 12±15 vs. -9±10 ml, P<0,05), enquanto que a FC aumentou mais ao final do dia (+7±5 vs. +10±5 bpm, P<0,05). Isto ocorreu, devido ao exercício promover aumento do balanço simpatovagal (BF/AF) somente ao final do dia (+1,5±1,6, P<0,05), enquanto que a modulação vasomotora (BFPAS) pós-exercício diminuiu apenas pela manhã (-0,5±0,9 mmHg2, P<0,05). A sensibilidade barorreflexa espontânea, avaliada pelo do ganho médio de sequências positivas e negativas (SBR±) diminuiu pós-exercício nas duas fases do dia. O exercício não teve nenhum efeito sobre o fluxo sanguíneo e a capacidade vasodilatadora do braço, mas aumentou a capacidade vasodilatadora da perna apenas quando o exercício foi realizado ao final do dia (+116±172 ua, P<0,05). Nas medidas ambulatoriais, o exercício realizado ao final do dia reduziu a PA de sono e no período entre a 5 e 7ª hora pós-exercício. O exercício não teve nenhum efeito sobre os níveis de noradrenalina, adrenalina e 6-sulfatoximelatonina. Dessa forma, não houve correlações consistentes entre o efeito do exercício nos níveis hormonais e nas variáveis hemodinâmicas, autonômicas e ambulatoriais em nenhuma das fases do dia. Em conclusão, em pré-hipertensos, uma única sessão de exercício aeróbico reduz a PA pósexercício tanto quando o exercício é realizado pela manhã quanto ao final do dia, mas o maior efeito hipotensor é observado quando o exercício é realizado pela manhã para a PA sistólica. Este maior efeito hipotensor sistólico se deve à queda do DC pela manhã, que ocorre devido à diminuição do volume sistólico e menor aumento da FC pós-exercício nesta fase do dia, o que é provocado pelo menor aumento do balanço simpatovagal e se acompanha de menor aumento na capacidade vasodilatadora da musculatura ativa nesta fase do dia. O efeito hipotensor do exercício, no entanto, ao final do dia se reflete em redução da PA de sono pósexercício. Os efeitos do exercício aeróbico, realizado em diferentes fases do dia, sobre a PA clínica e ambulatorial e seus mecanismos hemodinâmicos, autonômicas e vasculares não se relacionam aos efeitos deste exercício sobre as catecolaminas e a produção de melatonina / Aerobic exercise is recommended for prehypertensive individuals to prevent hypertension development. An aerobic exercise bout promotes post-exercise hypotension, and previous studies with normotensive individuals reported that post-exercise hypotension is lower when exercise is conducted in the morning than in the evening. However, these studies have not included a control situation (without exercise) and only evaluated some hemodynamic determinants of this phenomenon. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze and to compare blood pressure (BP) responses and their hemodynamic determinants and autonomic mechanisms after an aerobic exercise performed in the morning (9:00a.m) and the evening 6:30p.m), associating these results with the effects of this exercise in some neurohormonal markers of circadian rhythms. For this, 16 prehypertensive men underwent 4 experimental sessions conducted in random order: two in the morning and two in the evening. At each time of day, one control (rest) and one exercise (cycle ergometer, 45 min, 50% of VO2peak) sessions were performed. Clinic BP, cardiac output (CO), systemic vascular resistance (SVR), stroke volume (SV), heart rate (HR), cardiac autonomic modulation, vasomotor modulation, baroreflex sensitivity, muscle blood flow, vasodilation and plasma concentrations of norepinephrine and epinephrine were measured before and after the intervention in each session. In addition, ambulatory BP was measured for 24 hours after the experimental sessions and the concentration of melatonin metabolite 6-sulfatoxymelatonin produced during the sleep before and after each session was assessed. Data were analyzed by 2 or 3-way ANOVA for repeated measures as well as by paired t test or Wilcoxon test, and the associations between variables were calculated by Pearson and Spearman correlations. P 0.05 was accepted as significant. Exercise produced a greater systolic BP reduction in the morning than the evening (-7 ± 3 -3 ± 4 mmHg, P<0.05), while the diastolic blood pressure decreased similarly in both times of day (-3±3 vs -3±3 mmHg, respectively, P<0.05). CO decreased and SVR tended to increased after exercise in the morning, while these variables did not change after exercise in the evening (-460 ± 771ml/min and +2.0 ± 3.8 mmHg.min/l; +148 633ml/min ± 2.8 and -1.4 ± mmHg.min/l , respectively). VS decreased similarly after exercise in both times of day (-12 ± 15 vs -9 ± 10 ml, P<0.05), while the HR increased more in the evening (+7 ± 5 vs +10 ± 5 bpm, P<0.05). This occurred because exercise increased sympathovagal balance only in the evening (+1.5 ± 1.6, P<0.05), whereas vasomotor modulation decreased only after exercise performed in the morning (-0.5 ± 0.9 mmHg2, P<0.05). Spontaneous baroreflex sensitivity, measured by the average gain of positive and negative sequences (± SBR) decreased after the exercise in both times of day. The exercise did not affect arm blood flow and vasodilatory capacity, but increased leg vasodilation when exercise was performed in the evening (+116 ± 172 au, P<0.05). In regard to ambulatory measures, the exercise performed in the evening reduced asleep BP and BP measured 5-7hr post-exercise. The exercise did not have any effect in the norepinephrine, epinephrine and 6- sulphatoxymelatonin. Thus, there was not consistent correlation between the effect of exercise in hormone levels and in hemodynamic, autonomic and ambulatory responses. In conclusion, in prehypertensives, a single bout of aerobic exercise reduces post-exercise BP regardless if the exercise is performed in the morning or in the evening, however a greater hypotensive effect is observed in the morning for systolic BP. This greater systolic hypotensive effect is due to the decrease in CO in the morning, related to a decrease in SV and a lower increase in HR after the exercise performed in the morning, which is caused by a lower increase in sympathovagal balance and is accompanied by a smaller increase in active muscles vasodilatory capacity in the morning. The hypotensive effect of evening exercise leads to a reduction in asleep BP. The effects of exercise, performed at different times of day, on postexercise clinic and ambulatory BP as well in its hemodynamic, autonomic and vascular determinants are not related to the effects of this exercise in catecholamines and melatonin production

In this study I examine voter response at an interview level using a dataset of 7562 voter contacts (including responses and nonresponses) in the 2004 Utah Colleges Exit Poll. In 2004, 4908 of the 7562 voters approached responded to the exit poll for an overall response rate of 65 percent. Logistic regression is used to estimate factors that contribute to a success or failure of each interview attempt. This logistic regression model uses interviewer characteristics, voter characteristics (both respondents and nonrespondents), and exogenous factors as independent variables. Voter characteristics such as race, gender, and age are strongly associated with response. An interviewer's prior retail sales experience is associated with whether a voter will decide to respond to a questionnaire or not. The only exogenous factor that is associated with voter response is whether the interview occurred in the morning or afternoon.