This study focuses on how children’s characteristics (number and age) and parental characteristics (e.g. employment status, education) and day of the week are linked to parents’ daily time allocations to primary child care, domestic labour, personal care, sleeping and leisure. Also, I compare gender and marital status differences in the determinants of parents’ daily time allocations to activities studied. I find that children’s characteristics are most important to parents’ primary child care time and to married mothers’ and single mothers’ domestic labour time. Day of the week and parental characteristics such as employment status are also associated with parents’ time allocations to the activities studied. As well, I find that Canadian married mothers spend much less time on sleeping than married fathers.

The Italian labour market seems unable to allocate a significant fraction of the working age population efficiently. The gap between the employment rate in Italy and in the other developed economies is foremost attributable to the low employment rates of youth, seniors and women. The low employment rates of these three groups are due to several factors limiting both labour demand and labour supply. For women in particular, constraints on the allocation of time play a crucial role in determining labour supply behaviour. In this thesis we try to understand how non-standard time constraints may affect the behaviour of women, and their labour supply in particular. In the first chapter we study how the constraints on work-schedules affect the time allocation of workers in Italy. For a large fraction of employed individuals the work schedule is very rigid, as a consequence of outdated industrial relations. In order to understand whether constraints on the work-schedule produce significant effects on the allocation of time of wage/salary workers in Italy, we exploit the intrinsic differences between them and self employed workers. In fact, one of the main features of self-employment is the greater control over the days worked and daily hours of work. We use the last wave of the Italian time use survey (2008-2009) to provide evidence that the distribution of hours of work of self-employed workers is much more dispersed than that of wage/salary workers and that average standard deviation of their daily minutes of work within a week is significantly larger. Then we show that self-employed workers respond more to shocks affecting the value of leisure. We show that on sunny days the increase of leisure and the reduction of work are significantly larger for self-employed workers. We address whether unobservable characteristics, such as preferences for leisure and for outdoor activities in particular, determine this differential response and find no evidence for this. We interpret the differential response to weather shocks as a consequence of the time constraints on work-schedules. This evidence is relevant for female labour force participation since in Italy a large fraction of women choose not to work because they would otherwise not be able to reconcile family and work responsibilities. In the second chapter we study the Added Worker Effect (AWE). The retrospective questions provided by the new labour force survey allow identification of transitions between labour market states in a 12 month time-window. Since we are able to identify the reason for the husband’s job loss, we distinguish between transitions associated with low or high income losses. We find that both the wife’s probability of joining the labour force and that of finding a job increase when the husband is dismissed or he is forced to quit his job for health reasons, two cases of usually high income losses. Moreover, we estimate the wife’s full transition matrix between labour market states and we find that the loss of a job by a husband increases the probability that his wife will enter the iv labour force. Finally, we provide some descriptive evidence that time constraints can also impact the magnitude of the AWE. Focusing on mothers with young children, we show that the estimated AWE is positively correlated with the regional provision of child care services. The third chapter is based on the time use files of the Canadian General Social Survey. We study how Sunday shopping deregulation changed the time allocation of women, with a particular focus on those with children. The empirical analysis relies on the provincial variation in the time of the policy change. Our results suggest that women with children, who usually face stringent time constraints, respond to the policy change by substituting weekday shopping with Sunday shopping. The amount of time these women save from doing shopping on weekdays allows them to increase their minutes of work. On Sunday, shopping increases at the expense of leisure. The main result of this chapter is that the labour supply of mothers may change even when non-obvious constraints on the allocation of time change.

The Italian labour market seems unable to allocate a significant fraction of the working age population efficiently. The gap between the employment rate in Italy and in the other developed economies is foremost attributable to the low employment rates of youth, seniors and women. The low employment rates of these three groups are due to several factors limiting both labour demand and labour supply. For women in particular, constraints on the allocation of time play a crucial role in determining labour supply behaviour. In this thesis we try to understand how non-standard time constraints may affect the behaviour of women, and their labour supply in particular. In the first chapter we study how the constraints on work-schedules affect the time allocation of workers in Italy. For a large fraction of employed individuals the work schedule is very rigid, as a consequence of outdated industrial relations. In order to understand whether constraints on the work-schedule produce significant effects on the allocation of time of wage/salary workers in Italy, we exploit the intrinsic differences between them and self employed workers. In fact, one of the main features of self-employment is the greater control over the days worked and daily hours of work. We use the last wave of the Italian time use survey (2008-2009) to provide evidence that the distribution of hours of work of self-employed workers is much more dispersed than that of wage/salary workers and that average standard deviation of their daily minutes of work within a week is significantly larger. Then we show that self-employed workers respond more to shocks affecting the value of leisure. We show that on sunny days the increase of leisure and the reduction of work are significantly larger for self-employed workers. We address whether unobservable characteristics, such as preferences for leisure and for outdoor activities in particular, determine this differential response and find no evidence for this. We interpret the differential response to weather shocks as a consequence of the time constraints on work-schedules. This evidence is relevant for female labour force participation since in Italy a large fraction of women choose not to work because they would otherwise not be able to reconcile family and work responsibilities. In the second chapter we study the Added Worker Effect (AWE). The retrospective questions provided by the new labour force survey allow identification of transitions between labour market states in a 12 month time-window. Since we are able to identify the reason for the husband’s job loss, we distinguish between transitions associated with low or high income losses. We find that both the wife’s probability of joining the labour force and that of finding a job increase when the husband is dismissed or he is forced to quit his job for health reasons, two cases of usually high income losses. Moreover, we estimate the wife’s full transition matrix between labour market states and we find that the loss of a job by a husband increases the probability that his wife will enter the iv labour force. Finally, we provide some descriptive evidence that time constraints can also impact the magnitude of the AWE. Focusing on mothers with young children, we show that the estimated AWE is positively correlated with the regional provision of child care services. The third chapter is based on the time use files of the Canadian General Social Survey. We study how Sunday shopping deregulation changed the time allocation of women, with a particular focus on those with children. The empirical analysis relies on the provincial variation in the time of the policy change. Our results suggest that women with children, who usually face stringent time constraints, respond to the policy change by substituting weekday shopping with Sunday shopping. The amount of time these women save from doing shopping on weekdays allows them to increase their minutes of work. On Sunday, shopping increases at the expense of leisure. The main result of this chapter is that the labour supply of mothers may change even when non-obvious constraints on the allocation of time change.

The purpose of this study was to learn about how elementary principals conceptualized instructional leadership and whether the way they thought about leadership influenced their allotted use of time for instructional leadership. In order to answer this question, two sub-questions needed to be answered about how elementary principals conceptualized instructional leadership and how elementary principals perceived they used their time. This mixed-method study interviewed 30 principals in an urban-suburban school district in Utah to produce data. Each principal participated in a newly constructed survey of 84 questions. The survey consisted of four parts including demographics, open-ended questions about instructional leadership, and paper and pencil questions about both instructional leadership and how the principal thought they spent their time. The findings of the study showed that the principals recognized and agreed with a broad definition of instructional leadership when prompted, but they were only able to articulate a limited definition made up of between three and ten sub-concepts. Every principal's self constructed combination of the sub-concepts differed. However, when the principal's conceptualization of instructional leadership was translated into the time they spent on each task associated with that conceptualization, 68% of the responses fell into those tasks associated with the narrow definition of instructional leadership, however only 60% of their time was used for tasks associated with the narrow definition of instructional leadership. (The principals conformed their instructional leadership time to their self constructed conceptualization from 10.7% to 100% of their time.) Principals committed between 7.0-38% of their total time to instructional leadership, but the average amount of time spent on instructional leadership was 20% of their total time. Principals who had more time tasks associated with the narrow definition of instructional leadership committed more of their total time to instructional leadership. The principals who indicated that coaching, mentoring, and collaboration as the most important activities of instructional leadership spent more time doing these instructional leadership tasks than principals who said other activities were most important. The task most often associated with instructional leadership when principals self constructed their responses was "being in classrooms and evaluating teachers."

Review of American Time Use : Who Spends How Long at What. New Strategist Publications. 2007. 470p, 9781933588278, $89.95

Time use, attitudes, and perceptions of 120 sib lings, aged 10 to 17, of children with and without Down syndrome were compared. Time use was compared in 10 composite and 14 focused categories. Overall, the findings evidenced marked similarities between groups in time use. Siblings of ch i ldren in both groups spent similar amounts of time x performing household duties, shopping, s leeping , eating, playing, participat ing in sports , and watching TV. The siblings of children with Down syndrome did differ from the compar i son group in their school attendance. They also spent less time in socia l activities and more time in ch ild care and working for pay . Although the presence of a child with Down syndrome had little effect on time use, age and gender were found to be important variables. The two groups did not differ significant ly in their attitudes concerning their own happiness, friendships, families, school, and expectations. The siblings of children with Down syndrome did report more frequent family activities than did the comparison si blings. Within the sample of siblings of children with Down syndrome, compar i sons were made between the siblings who were relatively older or younger than the ch ild with Down syndrome and between the sib lings of low- or high-functioning children with Down syndrome. Neither time use nor attitude comparisons showed any statistica l differences, except that older siblings provided child care and younger siblings did not. The child care issue is a major concern for researchers and families. In this study, most siblings, even most older siblings , did not report time providing child care, although a relatively few older s iblings appeared to provide child care extensively.

Rationale: Consumers of the mental health system with serious mental illness have been deprived of meaningful occupations since de-institutionalization began in the late 20th century.Community mental health policy has failed to focus on the meaningful occupational lives of this group of service users. Given the disparity in activity and meaningful time use for people with serious mental illness when compared to the general population, it is clear that a treatment that draws attention to occupational balance and engagement is needed. As balanced time use has been shown to increase community adjustment and life satisfaction, it is an important area of focus. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to pilot test the efficacy of a new occupational time use intervention, provisionally titled “Action over Inertia,” designed to increase occupational balance and engagement in the lives of people with serious mental illness living in the community. Methods: A prospective, multi-centre randomized controlled trial of the intervention, involving 5 Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) teams in southeastern Ontario,ran in Fall 2007/Winter 2008. 18 ACT clients took part in the 12 week intervention, which was delivered by the ACT team occupational therapists. Results: Time use, used as a measure of occupational balance, shifted away from sleep to increased general activity in the treatment group(p=0.05). Treatment and control groups did not differ on occupational engagement measures after the completion of the trial. Feedback on the clinical utility of the intervention was very positive from both therapists and treatment participants. Conclusions: This pilot test revealed initially positive data on the efficacy and clinical utility of the intervention.Further study of the “Action over Inertia” intervention is needed on a larger scale, potentially with a longer treatment timeline to further investigate its usefulness. / Thesis (Master, Rehabilitation Science) -- Queen's University, 2008-09-22 14:36:47.279

ABSTRACT Conduct problems are a common childhood mental health problem representing a significant proportion of young clients referred for occupational therapy. Children with conduct problems, especially the early onset subtype, can experience a difficult developmental trajectory and this can also impact family members, peers and the broader community. The contours of family life in Australia, and many other western countries, have changed dramatically over the last few decades. For example, we have witnessed a large increase in single parent households, a dramatic increase in maternal employment, declines in fertility rates to well below replacement level, delayed parenthood, and an increase in divorce rates. Consequently both parents and children must navigate a much more varied and in some cases more challenging and stressful set of life course choices and pathways than in the past. For some this will result in changes to parenting practices and children’s time use, potentially exposing children to a higher risk for developing conduct problems. While there is evidence to support the important role played by parents in this context, the relative impact of how and with whom children spend their time has not been closely examined. The aims of this study are to understand how young Australian children spend their time and to examine how children’s time use is related to their risk of developing conduct problems. More specifically it aims to investigate the social context of activities in which children are involved, the extent to which these activities involve physical exertion, structure, and rest and recuperative qualities in relation to conduct problems. In addition, children’s exposure to out-of-family care, differences in parenting practices and socioeconomic factors are also considered. The study is unique in having access to recent, high quality, national level Australian survey data that combines both detailed information on children’s time use, validated scales measuring children’s conduct problems, as well as a range of other variables necessary to accurately measure the relationships between them. These data come from the 4 to 5 year old child cohort from Wave 1 of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) survey. The LSAC is the first comprehensive national longitudinal study of Australian children and is funded by the Australian Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA). The LSAC follows the lives of two cohorts of approximately 5,000 children each, an infant cohort (0-1 years old in Wave 1) and a child cohort (4-5 years old in Wave 1). This study examines the 4-5 year cohort only. A key strength of the LSAC is its use of time diaries to collect detailed information on children’s time use. It is the analyses of data from these diaries that is unique to the current study of conduct problems and allows the presentation of the first results that combine detailed measures of children’s time use with conduct disorder outcomes. First, descriptive analyses reveal the prevalence of children at risk of developing conduct problems, the variety of parenting practices and children’s time use profiles. Approximately 29% of Australian children aged 4 to 5 years are identified as being “at risk” of conduct problems. Parenting practices for children demonstrate high levels of warmth, reasoning, consistency, and low hostility. Children are reported to experience adequate amounts of sleep or rest, on average 11 hours per day. Over a quarter of children do not engage in moderate to vigorous physical activities, particularly on weekdays, over half do not engage in structured activities on weekdays and well over three-quarters do not engage in structured activities on weekends. Children are highly supervised by adults for approximately 10 hours a day either with or without the presence of peers during their waking hours, whereas almost three quarters of children do not spend time alone and over a half do not spend time with peers only. Second, two-way ANOVAs and random effects models are used to compare children’s time use by their experience of conduct problems. Results derived from the two-way ANOVAs indicate that children at risk of conduct problems spend significantly fewer hours being restful on weekdays, significantly more hours without peers under adult supervision on weekends and significantly fewer hours with peers under adult supervision on weekends than those not at risk. Results from the random effects models show that children at risk of developing conduct problems spend significantly more hours bike riding and significantly fewer hours being restful than those not at risk. Overall these results suggest that children at risk of conduct problems used time differently from those not at risk, particularly those aspects of time which are restful, involve bike riding, and in supervised social contexts. Third, chi-square tests and univariate logistic regression both affirm a higher risk of boys developing conduct problems (1.31 times more likely) than girls. Multivariate logistic regression with random effects is used to model the risk for developing conduct problems for boys and girls. The female model indicates that girls are at lower risk of conduct problems only if they are exposed to consistent and less hostile parenting practice and not have sleep problem reported by parents. The male model suggests that boys are vulnerable to more risk factors and are at lower risk of developing conduct problems if they have fathers who have completed tertiary education, are exposed to consistent and less hostile parenting, do not ride a bike on weekdays, spend less time in exercise on weekends, and do not have sleep problem reported by parents. Overall, the findings of this thesis lead to three main conclusions. First, males are at heightened risk for developing conduct problems and are subjected to more risk factors than girls. Second, parenting practice is affirmed in this thesis as the paramount predictor of risk for 4 to 5 year old children developing conduct problems. Third, the effects of time use depending on the innate quality and structure of activity are considered important for young children’s risk of developing conduct problems, and this is particularly pertinent for young boys. These results support the importance of family-centred services and time arrangements for activity participation when working with children at risk of or diagnosed with conduct problems. It also affirms the necessity to attend to parenting practices which may be described as hostile and inconsistent while at the same time highlighting the importance of fathers to their sons risk profile. These findings contribute to our understanding of children’s time use as a contributor to the behavioural wellbeing of children, especially young boys.

This paper examines how managers at the top of a public institution, central bank executives, allocate their working time. Using detailed Information from personal diaries of the six members of the European Central Bank's Executive Board over a period of two years, we codify and analyze more than 3,700 reported activities and compare the results with recent findings on the time use of CEOs in the private sector. We report four additional observations. First, the daily schedule of central bankers is dominated by routine tasks; variations in economic uncertainty have, on average, no significant effect on the number of activities. Second, there are sizable differences in the scope of activities across board members. Third, the change in publication rules of diary entries from 'on request' to 'regular' was associated with a significant decline in reported activities. Fourth, nationality matters: Board members interact disproportionately often with fellow nationals. / Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Most poverty studies ignore the dimension of time and are merely concerned if an individual meets certain money-metric or non-income welfare (e.g., access to services and asset ownership) criteria. They fail to recognise the limited time (24hours per day) available to complete tasks and the added difficulties they have even though there is an abundance of money-metric and asset-related non-money-metric poverty studies. (Kim et al. 2014:1). For example, individuals/households deemed poor by standard measures cannot afford market alternatives to assist them with non-market work (like childcare). Therefore, they find themselves spending all their time in market and non-market work without taking time for rest and improving themselves. Recognising non-market work and the allocation of time allows for a greater understanding into the role of women and Africans whose non-market work are unrecognised by standard economic measures such as GDP (Ferrant 2014:1). There are also only a few in-depth studies on time poverty, but they fail to utilise the most current data. Therefore, this study seeks to provide insights into how household production impacts on South African welfare. It explores the income, time poor and the extent of time allocation differences for various personal characteristics. It estimates the likelihood of time poverty based on an individual’s time schedule and the factors which most likely results in time poverty.