The overall focus of this research project was to develop an in vitro tissue-engineered system that accurately reproduced the physiology of the sensory elements of the stretch reflex arc as well as engineer the myelination of neurons in the systems. In order to achieve this goal we hypothesized that myelinating culture systems, intrafusal muscle fibers and the sensory circuit of the stretch reflex arc could be bioengineered using serum-free medium formulations, growth substrate interface design and microfabrication technology. The monosynaptic stretch reflex arc is formed by a direct synapse between motoneurons and sensory neurons and is one of the fundamental circuits involved in motor control. The circuit serves as a proprioceptive feedback system, relaying information about muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system (CNS). It is composed of four elements, which are split into two circuits. The efferent or motor circuit is composed of an [alpha]-motoneuron and the extrafusal skeletal muscle fibers it innervates, while the afferent or sensory circuit is composed of a Ia sensory neuron and a muscle spindle. Structurally, the two muscular units are aligned in parallel, which plays a critical role modulating the system's performance. Functionally, the circuit acts to maintain appropriate muscle length during activities as diverse as eye movement, respiration, locomotion, fine motor control and posture maintenance. Myelination of the axons of the neuronal system is a vertebrate adaptation that enables rapid conduction of action potentials without a commensurate increase in axon diameter. In vitro neuronal systems that reproduce these effects would provide a unique modality to study factors influencing sensory neuronal deficits, neuropathic pain, myelination and diseases associated with myelination. In this dissertation, results for defined in vitro culture conditions resulting in myelination of motoneurons by Schwann cells, pattern controlled myelination of sensory neurons, intrafusal fiber formation, patterned assembly of the mechanosensory complex and integration of the complex on bio-MEMS cantilever devices. Using these systems the stretch sensitive sodium channel BNaC1 and the structural protein PICK1 localized at the sensory neuron terminals associated with the intrafusal fibers was identified as well as the Ca2+ waves associated with sensory neuron electrical activity upon intrafusal fiber stretch on MEMS cantilevers. The knowledge gained through these multi-disciplinary approaches could lead to insights for spasticity inducing diseases like Parkinson's, demyelinating diseases and spinal cord injury repair. These engineered systems also have application in high-throughput drug discovery. Furthermore, the use of biomechanical systems could lead to improved fine motor control for tissue-engineered prosthetic devices.

Articular Cartilage (AC) is the main load carrying material in synovial joints {Hamerman, 1962} and degeneration of AC can cause pain in the form of arthritis. Current work is centered on the method of replacing damaged cartilage inside the body (in vivo) with tissue engineered outside the body (ex vivo) {Temenoff, 2000}. In order to engineer tissue ex vivo similar to the native tissue in structure and function there must be a comprehensive understanding of the mechanical properties of AC. This work focuses on the study of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), a molecule known to be primarily responsible for the compressive stiffness of AC, using molecular dynamics methods. First, a single chain simulation is run to establish a chain length to use for the rest of the study. Then two more simulations are run that mimic a possible physical scenario for changing GAG density. The first is a five chain simulation that mimics the situation where GAG chains are compressed and pushed together. Pressure and density relations are generated and compared to the micro-structural level Donnan model {Maroudas, 1979} and Poisson-Boltzmann unit cell (PB) model {Marcus, 1955}. The last simulation imitates the scenario of one GAG chain sliding between two adjacent GAG chains. The work to pull the central chain through the adjacent chains is calculated and plotted at different chain spacing. A 20 disaccharide-unit long chain is found to be the most stable chain length, but for the purpose of saving computational time without a large loss in stability a 10 unit chain is used for the rest of the simulations. The pressure-density relations found from the five chain simulation are of the same magnitude as the micro-structural level models. Observations made based on the graphical playback of the pulling simulation give insight into the importance of ion interaction with the GAG chains. It was found to take more work to pull the chain with more open space around because of the binding nature of the ions coming between the chains. The tighter spaced chains allowed fewer ions to fit between chains creating less binding force, therefore taking less work to pull. This work can be scaled up to the next level using coarse-graining methods which will be more comparable to experimental work, possibly leading to results that will help characterize AC for better implementation of engineered tissue.

Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the United States with a 5-year late-stage survival rate of only 14%. Due to the lack of translation between animal models and clinical trials as well as the inefficacy of many chemotherapeutics in initial clinical trials, researchers are turning to in vitro drug screening models in an effort to mimic the conditions in vivo. This research project aimed to validate an in vitro tumor culture model within a microfluidic device using a clinically relevant chemotherapy drug. The first experiment consisted of a cell density and drug concentration study to determine the correct cell density and oxaliplatin concentration combinations that would result in a spectrum of quantifiable effects on the tumor cells. This experiment was then converted from a monolayer cell culture on glass into a 2D culture on top of a fibrin extracellular matrix (ECM) to ensure that the cells would respond in a similar way to the drug in the presence of an ECM as they did in the first experiment. The third experiment involved SW620 cells cultured within the fibrin hydrogel to create a 3D tumor model that better mimics the growing conditions in vivo. The goal of this experiment was again to ensure that the cells would respond in the same way to the oxaliplatin treatments as the previous experiments when adding complexity to the model. The final experiment was then to convert this 3D experiment performed in chamber slides into a 3D culture within a microfluidic device with media and oxaliplatin treatments perfused through the chamber using a syringe pump. The purpose of this experiment was to assess whether tumor cells could grow and survive within a microfluidic device with interstitial flow as well as determining if they responded as expected to the oxaliplatin treatment. The first three experiments performed within chamber slides showed that tumor count and average tumor size decreased with increasing oxaliplatin concentrations as expected, which is comparable to the in vivo tumor response to the drug. The fourth experiment demonstrated that, although cells are able to grow within the microfluidic device, this model did not accurately replicate the in vivo condition and future work needs to be aimed at improving the design of the device as well as optimizing parameters within the experiment.

“Blood vessel mimics” (BVMs) are tissue-engineered constructs that serve as in vitro preclinical testing models for intravascular devices. The Cal Poly Tissue Engineering lab specifically uses BVMs to test the cellular response to stent implantation. PLGA scaffolds are electrospun in-house using the current “Standard Protocol” and used as the framework for these constructs. The performance of BVMs greatly depends on material and mechanical properties of the scaffolds. It is desirable to create BVMs with reproducible properties so that they can be consistent models that ultimately generate more reliable results for intravascular device testing. Reproducibility stems from the consistency of the scaffolds. Thus, scaffolds with consistent material and mechanical properties are necessary for creating reproducible BVMs. The aim of this thesis was to characterize the reproducibility of the electrospun PLGA scaffolds using fiber diameter measurements and compliance testing. Initial work in this investigation involved designing and testing several experimental electrospinning protocols to obtain smaller fiber diameters, which have been shown to elicit more ideal cellular responses. The most successful protocol in that regard was then analyzed for the reproducibility of fiber diameters and compared to the reproducibility of the Standard Protocol. After determining that the Standard Protocol produced scaffolds with more consistent fibers, a large-scale reproducibility study was performed using this protocol. In this expanded study, both fiber diameter and compliance were analyzed and used to characterize the scaffolds. It was established that the scaffolds demonstrated inconsistent mean fiber diameter and mean compliance. The current standard electrospinning protocol therefore does not create PLGA scaffolds with statistically reproducible properties. Future modifications should be made to the electrospinning parameters in order to reduce variability between the scaffolds and future studies should be performed to determine the acceptable range of properties.

This study analyzed the feasibility of using gas foaming to create Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) scaffolds for use as a substrate in bone tissue engineering and set out to determine whether the presence of osteoblasts on these scaffolds enhanced their material stiffness. The process of bone formation involves osteoblasts depositing extracellular matrix and calcifying this matrix with calcium phosphate crystals (Hasegawa et al., 2017) and pits between 30-40μm in diameter on tissue engineering scaffold surfaces have been shown to best promote osteogenic activity in the presence of bone-forming cells (Halai et al., 2014).The scaffolds were determined to contain pits within this 30-40μm range and the ability of osteoblasts to lay down and calcify extracellular matrix on gas foamed PLGA scaffolds was confirmed by the image analysis of inverted optical microscope images of Alizarin Red S-stained scaffold cryosectionsThe presence of osteogenic activity combined with the desired scaffold porosity led us to conclude that gas foaming PLGA scaffolds are a feasible method of scaffold fabrication for bone tissue engineering and allowed us to optimize the gas foaming apparatus as an instrument to be used in further bone tissue engineering experiments at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.However, this study failed to determine whether the presence of osteoblasts improved the material stiffness of the PLGA scaffolds due to a lack of statistical significance in compression testing results.

Yes / Electrospinning is a versatile technique that has gained popularity for various biomedical applications in recent years. Electrospinning is being used for fabricating nanofibers for various biomedical and dental applications such as tooth regeneration, wound healing and prevention of dental caries. Electrospun materials have the benefits of unique properties for instance, high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced cellular interactions, protein absorption to facilitate binding sites for cell receptors. Extensive research has been conducted to explore the potential of electrospun nanofibers for repair and regeneration of various dental and oral tissues including dental pulp, dentin, periodontal tissues, oral mucosa and skeletal tissues. However, there are a few limitations of electrospinning hindering the progress of these materials to practical or clinical applications. In terms of biomaterials aspects, the better understanding of controlled fabrication, properties and functioning of electrospun materials is required to overcome the limitations. More in vivo studies are definitely required to evaluate the biocompatibility of electrospun scaffolds. Furthermore, mechanical properties of such scaffolds should be enhanced so that they resist mechanical stresses during tissue regeneration applications. The objective of this article is to review the current progress of electrospun nanofibers for biomedical and dental applications. In addition, various aspects of electrospun materials in relation to potential dental applications have been discussed.

No / The science and engineering of biomaterials have improved the human life expectancy. Tissue engineering is one of the nascent strategies with an aim to fulfill this target. Tissue engineering scaffolds are one of the most significant aspects of the recent tissue repair strategies; hence, it is imperative to design biomimetic substrates with suitable features. Conductive substrates can ameliorate the cellular activity through enhancement of cellular signaling. Biocompatible polymers with conductivity can mimic the cells’ niche in an appropriate manner. Bioconductive polymers based on aniline oligomers can potentially actualize this purpose because of their unique and tailoring properties. The aniline oligomers can be positioned within the molecular structure of other polymers, thus painter acting with the side groups of the main polymer or acting as a comonomer in their backbone. The conductivity of oligoaniline-based conductive biomaterials can be tailored to mimic the electrical and mechanical properties of targeted tissues/organs. These bioconductive substrates can be designed with high mechanical strength for hard tissues such as the bone and with high elasticity to be used for the cardiac tissue or can be synthesized in the form of injectable hydrogels, particles, and nanofibers for noninvasive implantation; these structures can be used for applications such as drug/gene delivery and extracellular biomimetic structures. It is expected that with progress in the fields of biomaterials and tissue engineering, more innovative constructs will be proposed in the near future. This review discusses the recent advancements in the use of oligoaniline-based conductive biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications.

Within this thesis, three main approaches for the assessment and investigation of altered hemodynamics like wall shear stress, oscillatory shear index and the arterial pulse wave velocity in atherosclerosis development and progression were conducted: 1. The establishment of a fast method for the simultaneous assessment of 3D WSS and PWV in the complete murine aortic arch via high-resolution 4D-flow MRI 2. The utilization of serial in vivo measurements in atherosclerotic mouse models using high-resolution 4D-flow MRI, which were divided into studies describing altered hemodynamics in late and early atherosclerosis 3. The development of tissue-engineered artery models for the controllable application and variation of hemodynamic and biologic parameters, divided in native artery models and biofabricated artery models, aiming for the investigation of the relationship between atherogenesis and hemodynamics Chapter 2 describes the establishment of a method for the simultaneous measurement of 3D WSS and PWV in the murine aortic arch at, using ultra high-field MRI at 17.6T [16], based on the previously published method for fast, self-navigated wall shear stress measurements in the murine aortic arch using radial 4D-phase contrast MRI at 17.6 T [4]. This work is based on the collective work of Dr. Patrick Winter, who developed the method and the author of this thesis, Kristina Andelovic, who performed the experiments and statistical analyses. As the method described in this chapter is basis for the following in vivo studies and undividable into the sub-parts of the contributors without losing important information, this chapter was not split into the single parts to provide fundamental information about the measurement and analysis methods and therefore better understandability for the following studies. The main challenge in this chapter was to overcome the issue of the need for a high spatial resolution to determine the velocity gradients at the vascular wall for the WSS quantification and a high temporal resolution for the assessment of the PWV without prolonging the acquisition time due to the need for two separate measurements. Moreover, for a full coverage of the hemodynamics in the murine aortic arch, a 3D measurement is needed, which was achieved by utilization of retrospective navigation and radial trajectories, enabling a highly flexible reconstruction framework to either reconstruct images at lower spatial resolution and higher frame rates for the acquisition of the PWV or higher spatial resolution and lower frame rates for the acquisition of the 3D WSS in a reasonable measurement time of only 35 minutes. This enabled the in vivo assessment of all relevant hemodynamic parameters related to atherosclerosis development and progression in one experimental session. This method was validated in healthy wild type and atherosclerotic Apoe-/- mice, indicating no differences in robustness between pathological and healthy mice. The heterogeneous distribution of plaque development and arterial stiffening in atherosclerosis [10, 12], however, points out the importance of local PWV measurements. Therefore, future studies should focus on the 3D acquisition of the local PWV in the murine aortic arch based on the presented method, in order to enable spatially resolved correlations of local arterial stiffness with other hemodynamic parameters and plaque composition. In Chapter 3, the previously established methods were used for the investigation of changing aortic hemodynamics during ageing and atherosclerosis in healthy wild type and atherosclerotic Apoe-/- mice using the previously established methods [4, 16] based on high-resolution 4D-flow MRI. In this work, serial measurements of healthy and atherosclerotic mice were conducted to track all changes in hemodynamics in the complete aortic arch over time. Moreover, spatially resolved 2D projection maps of WSS and OSI of the complete aortic arch were generated. This important feature allowed for the pixel-wise statistical analysis of inter- and intragroup hemodynamic changes over time and most importantly – at a glance. The study revealed converse differences of local hemodynamic profiles in healthy WT and atherosclerotic Apoe−/− mice, with decreasing longWSS and increasing OSI, while showing constant PWV in healthy mice and increasing longWSS and decreasing OSI, while showing increased PWV in diseased mice. Moreover, spatially resolved correlations between WSS, PWV, plaque and vessel wall characteristics were enabled, giving detailed insights into coherences between hemodynamics and plaque composition. Here, the circWSS was identified as a potential marker of plaque size and composition in advanced atherosclerosis. Moreover, correlations with PWV values identified the maximum radStrain could serve as a potential marker for vascular elasticity. This study demonstrated the feasibility and utility of high-resolution 4D flow MRI to spatially resolve, visualize and analyze statistical differences in all relevant hemodynamic parameters over time and between healthy and diseased mice, which could significantly improve our understanding of plaque progression towards vulnerability. In future studies the relation of vascular elasticity and radial strain should be further investigated and validated with local PWV measurements and CFD. Moreover, the 2D histological datasets were not reflecting the 3D properties and regional characteristics of the atherosclerotic plaques. Therefore, future studies will include 3D plaque volume and composition analysis like morphological measurements with MRI or light-sheet microscopy to further improve the analysis of the relationship between hemodynamics and atherosclerosis. Chapter 4 aimed at the description and investigation of hemodynamics in early stages of atherosclerosis. Moreover, this study included measurements of hemodynamics at baseline levels in healthy WT and atherosclerotic mouse models. Due to the lack of hemodynamic-related studies in Ldlr-/- mice, which are the most used mouse models in atherosclerosis research together with the Apoe-/- mouse model, this model was included in this study to describe changing hemodynamics in the aortic arch at baseline levels and during early atherosclerosis development and progression for the first time. In this study, distinct differences in aortic geometries of these mouse models at baseline levels were described for the first time, which result in significantly different flow- and WSS profiles in the Ldlr-/- mouse model. Further basal characterization of different parameters revealed only characteristic differences in lipid profiles, proving that the geometry is highly influencing the local WSS in these models. Most interestingly, calculation of the atherogenic index of plasma revealed a significantly higher risk in Ldlr-/- mice with ongoing atherosclerosis development, but significantly greater plaque areas in the aortic arch of Apoe-/- mice. Due to the given basal WSS and OSI profile in these two mouse models – two parameters highly influencing plaque development and progression – there is evidence that the regional plaque development differs between these mouse models during very early atherogenesis. Therefore, future studies should focus on the spatiotemporal evaluation of plaque development and composition in the three defined aortic regions using morphological measurements with MRI or 3D histological analyses like LSFM. Moreover, this study offers an excellent basis for future studies incorporating CFD simulations, analyzing the different measured parameter combinations (e.g., aortic geometry of the Ldlr-/- mouse with the lipid profile of the Apoe-/- mouse), simulating the resulting plaque development and composition. This could help to understand the complex interplay between altered hemodynamics, serum lipids and atherosclerosis and significantly improve our basic understanding of key factors initiating atherosclerosis development. Chapter 5 describes the establishment of a tissue-engineered artery model, which is based on native, decellularized porcine carotid artery scaffolds, cultured in a MRI-suitable bioreactor-system [23] for the investigation of hemodynamic-related atherosclerosis development in a controllable manner, using the previously established methods for WSS and PWV assessment [4, 16]. This in vitro artery model aimed for the reduction of animal experiments, while simultaneously offering a simplified, but completely controllable physical and biological environment. For this, a very fast and gentle decellularization protocol was established in a first step, which resulted in porcine carotid artery scaffolds showing complete acellularity while maintaining the extracellular matrix composition, overall ultrastructure and mechanical strength of native arteries. Moreover, a good cellular adhesion and proliferation was achieved, which was evaluated with isolated human blood outgrowth endothelial cells. Most importantly, an MRI-suitable artery chamber was designed for the simultaneous cultivation and assessment of high-resolution 4D hemodynamics in the described artery models. Using high-resolution 4D-flow MRI, the bioreactor system was proven to be suitable to quantify the volume flow, the two components of the WSS and the radStrain as well as the PWV in artery models, with obtained values being comparable to values found in literature for in vivo measurements. Moreover, the identification of first atherosclerotic processes like intimal thickening is achievable by three-dimensional assessment of the vessel wall morphology in the in vitro models. However, one limitation is the lack of a medial smooth muscle cell layer due to the dense ECM. Here, the utilization of the laser-cutting technology for the generation of holes and / or pits on a microscale, eventually enabling seeding of the media with SMCs showed promising results in a first try and should be further investigated in future studies. Therefore, the proposed artery model possesses all relevant components for the extension to an atherosclerosis model which may pave the way towards a significant improvement of our understanding of the key mechanisms in atherogenesis. Chapter 6 describes the development of an easy-to-prepare, low cost and fully customizable artery model based on biomaterials. Here, thermoresponsive sacrificial scaffolds, processed with the technique of MEW were used for the creation of variable, biomimetic shapes to mimic the geometric properties of the aortic arch, consisting of both, bifurcations and curvatures. After embedding the sacrificial scaffold into a gelatin-hydrogel containing SMCs, it was crosslinked with bacterial transglutaminase before dissolution and flushing of the sacrificial scaffold. The hereby generated channel was subsequently seeded with ECs, resulting in an easy-to-prepare, fast and low-cost artery model. In contrast to the native artery model, this model is therefore more variable in size and shape and offers the possibility to include smooth muscle cells from the beginning. Moreover, a custom-built and highly adaptable perfusion chamber was designed specifically for the scaffold structure, which enabled a one-step creation and simultaneously offering the possibility for dynamic cultivation of the artery models, making it an excellent basis for the development of in vitro disease test systems for e.g., flow-related atherosclerosis research. Due to time constraints, the extension to an atherosclerosis model could not be achieved within the scope of this thesis. Therefore, future studies will focus on the development and validation of an in vitro atherosclerosis model based on the proposed bi- and three-layered artery models. In conclusion, this thesis paved the way for a fast acquisition and detailed analyses of changing hemodynamics during atherosclerosis development and progression, including spatially resolved analyses of all relevant hemodynamic parameters over time and in between different groups. Moreover, to reduce animal experiments, while gaining control over various parameters influencing atherosclerosis development, promising artery models were established, which have the potential to serve as a new platform for basic atherosclerosis research. / Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden drei Hauptansätze zur Bewertung und Untersuchung der veränderten Hämodynamik wie Wandschubspannung, des oszillatorischen Scherindex und der arteriellen Pulswellengeschwindigkeit bei der Entwicklung und Progression der Atherosklerose durchgeführt: 1. Die Etablierung einer schnellen Methode zur gleichzeitigen Bestimmung der 3D-Wandschubspannung und der Pulswellengeschwindigkeit im gesamten Aortenbogen der Maus mittels hochauflösender 4D-Fluss-MRT 2. Die Verwendung von seriellen in vivo Messungen in atherosklerotischen Mausmodellen mittels hochauflösender 4D-Fluss-MRT, die in Studien zur Beschreibung der veränderten Hämodynamik bei später und früher Atherosklerose aufgeteilt wurden 3. Die Entwicklung von tissue-engineerten Arterienmodellen für die kontrollierte Anwendung und Variation von hämodynamischen und biologischen Parametern, unterteilt in native Arterienmodelle und biofabrizierte Arterienmodelle, mit dem Ziel, die Beziehung zwischen Atherogenese und veränderter Hämodynamik zu untersuchen Kapitel 2 beschreibt die Etablierung einer Methode zur gleichzeitigen Messung von 3D-Wandschubspannung und Pulswellengeschwindigkeit im Aortenbogen der Maus unter Verwendung der Ultrahochfeld-MRT bei 17,6T [16], die auf der zuvor veröffentlichten Methode zur schnellen, selbstnavigierten Messung der Wandschubspannung im Aortenbogen der Maus unter Verwendung der radialen 4D-Phasenkontrast-MRT bei 17,6T [4] basiert. Dieses Projekt basiert auf der gemeinsamen Arbeit von Dr. Patrick Winter, der diese Methode entwickelt hat, und der Autorin dieser Thesis, Kristina Andelovic, die die Experimente und statistischen Analysen durchgeführt hat. Da die in diesem Kapitel beschriebene Methode die Grundlage für die folgenden in vivo Studien darstellt und sich nicht in die einzelnen Beiträge der Autoren aufteilen lässt, ohne dass wichtige Informationen verloren gehen, wurde dieses Kapitel nicht in die einzelnen Teile aufgeteilt, um grundlegende Informationen über die Mess- und Analysemethoden zu liefern und somit eine bessere Verständlichkeit für die folgenden Studien zu gewährleisten. Die größte Herausforderung in diesem Kapitel bestand darin, die Anforderung an eine hohe räumliche Auflösung zur Bestimmung der Geschwindigkeitsgradienten an der Gefäßwand für die WSS-Quantifizierung und an eine hohe zeitliche Auflösung für die Bestimmung der Pulswellengeschwindigkeit zu erfüllen, ohne die Messzeit aufgrund der Notwendigkeit von zwei separaten Messungen zu verlängern. Darüber hinaus ist für eine vollständige Erfassung der Hämodynamik im murinen Aortenbogen eine vollständige 3D-Messung des Aortenbogens erforderlich, die durch die Nutzung der retrospektiven Navigation und radialen Trajektorien erreicht wurde. Dies wurde durch ein hoch flexibles Rekonstruktionssystem ermöglicht, das entweder Bilder mit geringerer räumlicher Auflösung und höheren Bildraten für die Erfassung der Pulswellengeschwindigkeit oder mit höherer räumlicher Auflösung und niedrigeren Bildraten für die Erfassung der 3D-WSS in einer angemessenen Messzeit von nur 35 Minuten rekonstruieren konnte. Die in vivo-Bestimmung aller relevanter hämodynamischen Parameter, die mit der Entwicklung und dem Fortschreiten der Atherosklerose zusammenhängen, wurde somit in einer einzigen experimentellen Sitzung ermöglicht. Die Methode wurde an gesunden Wildtyp- und atherosklerotischen Apoe-/- Mäusen validiert, wobei keine Unterschiede in der Robustheit der Messungen zwischen pathologischen und gesunden Mäusen festgestellt werden konnten. Die heterogene Verteilung der Plaqueentwicklung und Arterienversteifung in der Atherosklerose [10, 12] weist jedoch auf die Wichtigkeit lokaler PWV-Messungen hin. Zukünftige Studien sollten sich daher auf die 3D-Erfassung der lokalen PWV im murinen Aortenbogen auf Grundlage der vorgestellten Methode konzentrieren, um räumlich aufgelöste Korrelationen der lokalen arteriellen Steifigkeit mit anderen hämodynamischen Parametern und der Plaquezusammensetzung zu ermöglichen. In Kapitel 3 wurden die zuvor etablierten Methoden zur Untersuchung der sich verändernden Hämodynamik in der Aorta während des Alterns und der Atherosklerose bei gesunden Wildtyp- und atherosklerotischen Apoe-/- Mäusen verwendet [4, 16], die auf hochauflösender 4D-Fluss MRT basieren. In dieser Arbeit wurden serielle Messungen an gesunden und atherosklerotischen Mäusen durchgeführt, um alle Veränderungen der Hämodynamik im gesamten Aortenbogen über die Zeit zu verfolgen. Zudem wurden in dieser Arbeit räumlich aufgelöste 2D-Projektionskarten der WSS und des OSI des gesamten Aortenbogens generiert. Diese Methode ermöglichte die pixelweise statistische Analyse der Unterschiede und hämodynamischen Veränderungen zwischen und innerhalb von Gruppen im Zeitverlauf und die Visualisierung auf einen Blick. Die Studie ergab sich gegensätzlich entwickelnde lokale hämodynamische Profile bei gesunden WT- und atherosklerotischen Apoe-/- Mäusen, wobei die longWSS über die Zeit abnahm und der OSI zunahm, während die PWV bei gesunden Mäusen konstant blieb. Im Gegensatz nahm die longWSS zu und der OSI bei kranken Mäusen ab, während die PWV über die Zeit zunahm. Darüber hinaus wurden räumlich aufgelöste Korrelationen zwischen WSS, PWV, Plaque und Gefäßwandeigenschaften ermöglicht, die detaillierte Einblicke in die Zusammenhänge zwischen Hämodynamik und Plaquezusammensetzung in der Atherosklerose bieten. Dabei wurde die zirkumferentielle WSS als potenzieller Marker für die Plaquegröße und -zusammensetzung bei fortgeschrittener Atherosklerose identifiziert. Darüber hinaus ergaben Korrelationen mit der PWV, dass der maximale radiale Druck als potenzieller Marker für die vaskuläre Elastizität dienen könnte. Zusammengefasst demonstriert diese Studie die Nützlichkeit der hochauflösenden 4D-Fluss MRT zur räumlichen Auflösung, Visualisierung und Analyse statistischer Unterschiede in allen relevanten hämodynamischen Parametern im Zeitverlauf und zwischen gesunden und erkrankten Mäusen, was unser Verständnis der Plaqueprogression in Richtung Vulnerabilität erheblich verbessern könnte. In zukünftigen Studien sollte jedoch der Zusammenhang zwischen Gefäßelastizität und radialem Druck weiter untersucht und mit lokalen PWV-Messungen und CFD validiert werden. Darüber hinaus spiegelten die histologischen 2D-Datensätze nicht die 3D-Eigenschaften und regionalen Charakteristika der atherosklerotischen Plaques wider. Daher sollten künftige Studien eine Analyse des 3D-Plaquevolumens und der 3D-Plaquenzusammensetzung sowie morphologische Messungen mittels MRT oder der Lichtblattmikroskopie mit einbeziehen, um das fundamentale Verständnis der Beziehung zwischen veränderter Hämodynamik und der Atherosklerose weiter zu verbessern. In Kapitel 4 ging es um die Beschreibung und Untersuchung der Hämodynamik in frühen Stadien der Atherosklerose. Darüber hinaus umfasste diese Studie zum ersten Mal Messungen der basalen Hämodynamik in gesunden WT- und atherosklerotischen Mausmodellen. Aufgrund des Mangels an Studien, die die Hämodynamik in Ldlr-/- Mäusen beschreiben, die zusammen mit dem Apoe-/- Mausmodell die am häufigsten verwendeten Mausmodelle in der Atheroskleroseforschung sind, wurde dieses Modell in diese Studie integriert, um erstmals die sich verändernde Hämodynamik im Aortenbogen zu Beginn und während der Entwicklung und Progression der frühen Atherosklerose zu beschreiben. In dieser Studie wurden erstmals deutliche Unterschiede in den basalen Aortengeometrien dieser Mausmodelle identifiziert, die zu signifikant unterschiedlichen Fluss- und WSS-Profilen im Ldlr-/- Mausmodell führen. Eine weitere basale Charakterisierung verschiedener Parameter ergab nur modell-charakteristische Unterschiede in den Lipidprofilen, was beweist, dass die Geometrie die lokale WSS in diesen Modellen stark beeinflusst. Interessanterweise ergab die Berechnung des atherogenen Plasma-Indexes ein signifikant höheres Risiko bei Ldlr-/- Mäusen mit fortschreitender Atheroskleroseentwicklung, aber signifikant größere Plaqueflächen im Aortenbogen der Apoe-/- Mäuse. Aufgrund des gegebenen basalen WSS- und OSI-Profils in diesen beiden Mausmodellen - zwei Parameter, die die Plaque-Entwicklung und -Progression stark beeinflussen - gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass sich die regionale Plaque-Entwicklung zwischen diesen Mausmodellen während der Atherogenese stark unterscheidet. Daher sollten sich künftige Studien auf die räumlich-zeitliche Bewertung der Plaqueentwicklung und -Zusammensetzung in den drei definierten Aortenregionen konzentrieren, wobei morphologische Messungen mittels MRT oder histologische 3D-Analysen wie LSFM zum Einsatz kommen. Darüber hinaus bietet diese Studie eine hervorragende Grundlage für künftige Studien mit CFD-Simulationen, in denen die verschiedenen gemessenen Parameterkombinationen (z. B. die Aortengeometrie der Ldlr-/-Maus mit dem Lipidprofil der Apoe-/- Maus) analysiert und die daraus resultierende Plaqueentwicklung und -Zusammensetzung simuliert werden. Dies könnte zum Verständnis des komplexen Zusammenspiels zwischen veränderter Hämodynamik, Serumlipiden und Atherosklerose beitragen und unser grundlegendes Verständnis der Schlüsselfaktoren für die Entstehung von Atherosklerose deutlich verbessern. In Kapitel 5 wird die Etablierung eines tissue-engineerten Arterienmodells beschrieben, das auf nativen, von Schweinehalsschlagadern hergestellten, dezellularisierten Gerüststrukturen basiert. Diese wurden zudem in einem MRT-geeigneten Bioreaktorsystem [23] kultiviert, um die hämodynamisch bedingte Atheroskleroseentwicklung auf kontrollierbare Weise zu untersuchen, wobei hierfür die zuvor etablierten Methoden zur WSS- und PWV-Bewertung [4, 16] verwendet wurden. Dieses in vitro Arterienmodell zielte auf die Reduzierung von Tierversuchen ab und bot gleichzeitig eine vereinfachte, aber vollständig kontrollierbare physikalische und biologische Umgebung. Zu diesem Zweck wurde in einem ersten Schritt ein sehr schnelles und schonendes Dezellularisierungsverfahren etabliert, das zu Gerüststrukturen basierend auf Schweinehalsschlagadern führte, die eine vollständige Azellularität aufwiesen, wobei gleichzeitig die Zusammensetzung der extrazellulären Matrix, die allgemeine Ultrastruktur und die mechanischen Eigenschaften der nativen Arterien erhalten blieben. Darüber hinaus wurde eine gute Zelladhäsion und -proliferation erreicht, die mit isolierten menschlichen Endothelzellen aus humanem Vollblut untersucht wurde. Darüber hinaus wurde zum ersten Mal eine MRT-geeignete Arterienkammer für die gleichzeitige Kultivierung der generierten Modelle und der Untersuchung der hochauflösenden 4D-Hämodynamik in diesen Arterienmodellen entwickelt. Unter Verwendung der hochauflösenden 4D-Fluss-MRT erwies sich das Bioreaktorsystem als sehr geeignet, den Volumenstrom, die beiden Komponenten der WSS inklusive dem radialen Druck und die PWV in den Arterienmodellen zu quantifizieren, wobei die erhaltenen Werte sehr gut mit den in der Literatur gefundenen Werten für in vivo-Messungen vergleichbar sind. Darüber hinaus lassen sich durch die dreidimensionale Untersuchung der Gefäßwandmorphologie in den in vitro-Modellen erste atherosklerotische Prozesse wie die Verdickung der Intima erkennen. Eine Einschränkung ist jedoch das Fehlen einer medialen glatten Muskelzellschicht aufgrund der dichten ECM des Gewebegerüsts. Die Verwendung der Laserschneidetechnik zur Erzeugung von Löchern und / oder Gruben im Mikrometerbereich, die eine Besiedlung des Mediums mit SMCs ermöglichen, zeigte in einem ersten Versuch vielversprechende Ergebnisse und sollte in zukünftigen Studien daher dringend weiter untersucht werden. Das präsentierte Arterienmodell verfügt somit über alle relevanten Komponenten für die Erweiterung zu einem Atherosklerosemodell und ebnet den Weg für ein deutlich besseres Verständnis der Schlüsselmechanismen in der Atherogenese. Kapitel 6 beschreibt die Entwicklung eines einfach herzustellenden, kostengünstigen und vollständig an gegebene Bedürfnisse anpassbaren Arterienmodells auf Grundlage von Biomaterialien. Hier wurden thermoresponsive Opfergerüststrukturen, die mit der MEW-Technik hergestellt wurden, zur Herstellung variabler, biomimetischer Formen verwendet, um die geometrischen Eigenschaften des Aortenbogens, bestehend aus Verzweigungen und Krümmungen, zu imitieren. Nach der Einbettung der Opfergerüststruktur in ein Gelatin-Hydrogel, das zudem SMCs enthält, wurde es mit bakterieller Transglutaminase vernetzt, bevor es aufgelöst und gespült wurde. Der so entstandene Hydrogelkanal wurde anschließend mit Endothelzellen besiedelt, wodurch ein einfach zu erstellendes, schnelles und kostengünstiges Arterienmodell entstand. Im Gegensatz zum nativen Arterienmodell ist dieses Modell daher deutlich variabler in Größe und Form und bietet die wichtige Möglichkeit, von Anfang an glatte Muskelzellen mit einzubringen. Darüber hinaus wurde speziell für die gegebene Gerüststruktur eine maßgeschneiderte und hochgradig anpassungsfähige Perfusionskammer entwickelt, die eine sehr schnelle und einstufige Herstellung des Arterienmodells ermöglicht und gleichzeitig die Möglichkeit zur dynamischen Kultivierung der Modelle bietet, was eine hervorragende Grundlage für die Entwicklung von in vitro Krankheits-Testsystemen für z.B. die Atheroskleroseforschung im Zusammenhang mit der Hämodynamik darstellt. Aus Zeitgründen konnte die Ausweitung auf ein Atherosklerosemodell jedoch im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nicht realisiert werden. Daher werden sich zukünftige Studien auf die Entwicklung und Validierung eines in vitro-Atherosklerosemodells konzentrieren, das auf den hier entwickelten zwei- und dreischichtigen Arterienmodellen basiert. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass diese Arbeit den Weg für eine schnelle Erfassung und detaillierte Analyse der sich verändernden Hämodynamik während der Entwicklung und der Progression der Atherosklerose geebnet hat, einschließlich räumlich aufgelöster Analysen aller relevanten hämodynamischen Parameter im Zeitverlauf innerhalb einer Gruppe und zwischen verschiedenen Gruppen. Darüber hinaus wurden vielversprechende Arterienmodelle etabliert, die das Potenzial haben, als neue Plattform für die Atherosklerose-Grundlagenforschung zu dienen, um Tierversuche zu minimieren und gleichzeitig die Kontrolle über verschiedene Parameter zu erlangen, die die Atheroskleroseentwicklung beeinflussen.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第24198号 / 医博第4892号 / 新制||医||1060(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 川口 義弥, 教授 松田 秀一, 教授 小濱 和貴 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Multiple Alzheimer’s disease (AD) clinical trials target pathogenic amyloid-β (Aβ) species using therapeutic anti-Aβ antibodies. However, failures from recent clinical trials investigating passive anti-Aβ antibody immunization demonstrate a continued gap in our understanding of AD pathogenesis. Hence, there is an immediate need to develop new safe therapeutic approaches that can be applicable at an early stage of the disease. We developed superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) conjugated with anti-Aβ antibodies, which bind to Aβ peptides and aggregated Aβ species in vitro and in vivo. We hypothesized that acute and rapid removal of pathogenic Aβ species using our antibody-conjugated magnetic nanoparticles can block Aβ-driven pathogenic cascades, including Aβ-driven tau pathology in human neurons. To test this hypothesis, we applied our conjugated SPIONs in our 3D human neural cell culture model of AD, followed by rapid removal of SPION-Aβ complex by an external magnet force in real-time. We detected a 25% reduction in soluble and insoluble Aβ species including Thioflavin-S (ThioS) positive Aβ. We also showed that our targeted SPIONs could efficiently remove ThioS positive Aβ aggregates from 5XFAD AD mouse brain slices and frozen AD patient brain sections. More importantly, we found a 16% reduction in pathogenic phosphorylated-tau species after acute removal of Aβ species in our 3D human neural cell model. Our results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of SPION-assisted immunotherapy to acutely reduce both Aβ accumulation and tau pathology without chronic exposure to anti-Aβ antibodies that leads to amyloid-related imaging abnormality (ARIA) side effects. We next explored the in vivo application of conjugated SPIONs in a transgenic AD mouse model. We found that remote alternating magnetic field treatment at lower frequencies enhanced antibody delivery across the blood-brain barrier. We also observed increased microglial activation without inducing neuroinflammation using this methodology. Taken together, this work demonstrates proof of concept for applying nanomedicine and neurostimulation as a tool to remotely modulate AD pathology and improve cerebral AD drug bioavailability. / 2025-01-23T00:00:00Z