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This dissertation comprises two distinct journal articles, each contributing significant advancements to recreation ecology by examining the effectiveness of various spatial tools in camping and trail management. The first article leverages strategic spatial planning, considering topography and spacing, to limit camping impacts and enhance visitor experiences. It investigates the long-term effectiveness of a sustainable camping management strategy on the Appalachian Trail, whereby protected area managers select and actively encourage or require visitors to camp on excavated "side-hill" campsites in sloping terrain. One of the most degraded camping locations along the popular Appalachian Trail was selected for this longitudinal study, which, in May 2002, involved the closure of 19 existing campsites in flat terrain, with use shifted to 14 newly constructed side-hill campsites in adjacent sloping terrain. Over the subsequent 17 years, the recovery of the closed campsites and the evolution of the newly established side-hill campsites were monitored and assessed. Results from this study reveal that a multifaceted approach integrating both direct and indirect management actions successfully achieved their management objectives to sustain the site's exceptionally high use while minimizing both resource and social impacts. This study highlights the ability of constructed side-hill campsites to resist expansion over time and provides valuable findings, insights, and "lessons learned" to guide protected area managers in selecting and implementing effective management strategies and actions in other high-use settings. The second study evaluates terrestrial photogrammetry as a spatial tool for trail impact assessment. Protected natural areas like Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP) rely heavily on trails to facilitate visitor access while spatially concentrating environmental impacts to their treads. Assessing the condition of these trails is difficult due to the logistical challenges inherent in conventional field data-gathering techniques. While technological advancements such as Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles (UAV) introduce Structure-from-Motion (SfM) capabilities for trail monitoring, they are not without limitations, including prohibitive costs, legal restrictions, and operational challenges, particularly when monitoring trails enveloped by canopy cover. This study presents a novel approach to trail assessment using terrestrial photogrammetry, wherein a consumer-grade camera captures high-resolution imagery that is processed using SfM techniques. The study compared manual measurements of 46 trail transects in JTNP with measurements from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) generated from SfM point clouds. The outcomes revealed a high level of agreement between the two methods, with the measurements derived from photogrammetric DEM data exhibiting consistently higher values compared to the field measurements, especially in the central regions of the transects. A statistically significant positive relationship between transect width and mean differences between GIS and field tread incision measurements suggests that the disparity may arise from the sagging of the tape measure across the trail, indicating photogrammetric methods might offer greater accuracy. The paper outlines methods for capturing high-resolution 3D trail data using cost-effective techniques and discusses the practicality and possibilities of using the technique in trail monitoring programs. This has far-reaching implications and positions terrestrial photogrammetry as a compelling alternative to drone-based acquisitions, particularly in areas where UAV operations are restricted, discouraged, or impractical. / Doctor of Philosophy / This dissertation contains two journal articles, each contributing significant advancements to recreation ecology by examining the effectiveness of various spatial tools in camping and trail management. The first paper assesses a sustainable camping strategy on the Appalachian Trail, where managers guide visitors to use designated campsites built into steep terrain, called "side-hill" campsites. One of the most degraded camping locations along the popular Appalachian Trail was selected for this study, and in May 2002, 19 existing campsites in flat terrain were closed, and use was shifted to 14 newly constructed side-hill campsites in nearby steeper terrain. Over 17 years, researchers measured the recovery of the old sites and the evolution and impacts associated with the new ones. The results show the new approach successfully prevented the expansion of campsites, a chronic problem in popular camping areas in flat terrain. Success is attributed not only to the physical relocation of campsites but also to the closing of old campsites with fencing, educating visitors about sustainable camping practices, enforcing regulations, and maintaining the sites. This study highlights the ability of constructed side-hill campsites to resist expansion over time and provides valuable findings, insights, and "lessons learned" to guide protected area managers in selecting and implementing effective management strategies and actions in other high-use settings. The second study in this dissertation introduces an innovative method for assessing the impact on trails in protected areas like Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP). Maintaining hiking trails is crucial as they provide visitor access while spatially concentrating environmental impacts to their treads. However, evaluating their condition is complex due to challenges associated with traditional data collection methods. While drones offer some advancements, they come with their own set of issues, including high costs, legal hurdles, and difficulties operating in areas with dense tree cover. This research presents a novel approach through terrestrial photogrammetry, a technique that uses photos of an object taken at different angles to create detailed 3D models with specialized software, a process known as Structure-from-Motion. The study involved a detailed comparison of traditional manual measurements from 46 trail sections in JTNP to measurements obtained from these 3D models. Results suggest photogrammetric methods might offer greater accuracy than manual measurements. The paper outlines methods for capturing high-resolution 3D trail data using cost-effective techniques and discusses the practicality and possibilities of using the technique in trail monitoring programs. This has far-reaching implications and positions terrestrial photogrammetry as a compelling alternative to drone-based acquisitions, particularly in areas where UAV operations are restricted, discouraged, or impractical.

EOC (epithelial ovarian cancer) is a leading cause of death from gynecological cancers. The majority of the patients with EOC are diagnosed at a late stage. The survival of these patients is limited due to recurrence of chemotherapy resistant disease. Therefore, the development of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of EOC is urgently needed and it is a high priority in the field. TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a promising novel agent for the treatment of cancer, including EOC, because of its unique ability to trigger apoptosis in cancer cells and spare normal cells. Our laboratory has previously shown that a significant number of EOC cell lines and primary EOC samples are intrinsically resistant to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. The mechanisms leading to intrinsic resistance are largely unknown. TRAIL-resistant cells often display increased activation of the pro-survival PI3K/Akt pathway. Based on our observations that EOC ascites induced activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway in TRAIL-sensitive EOC cells which resulted in inhibition of the TRAIL-mediated apoptosis, we hypothesized that activation of the pro-survival PI3K/Akt pathway in EOC cells plays an important role in the resistance to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. The objectives of my project were to demonstrate that Akt is implicated in the regulation of TRAIL-induced apoptosis in EOC cells and to investigate the mechanisms by which Akt contributes to TRAIL resistance. We report that Akt activation reduces the sensitivity of ovarian cancer cells to TRAIL. TRAIL-resistant cells were sensitized to TRAIL-induced apoptosis by treatment with P13K or Akt inhibitors but inhibition of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway did not interfere with the recruitment and processing of the pro-caspase-8 to the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). Conversely, overexpression of Akt1 in TRAIL-sensitive cells promoted resistance to TRAIL. Despite the fact that TRAIL-induced caspase-8 activation was observed in both TRAIL-sensitive and -resistant cell lines, Bid cleavage occurred only in TRAIL-sensitive cells. Akt activation in TRAIL-sensitive cells inhibited TRAIL-induced Bid cleavage. Furthermore, Bid expression was downregulated by Akt activation. Depletion of Bid by siRNA in TRAIL-sensitive EOC cells was associated with a decrease in TRAIL-mediated apoptosis and Bid overexpression in TRAIL-resistant cells resulted in increased TRAIL-mediated apoptosis. Altogether, these results suggest that Akt is a critical factor for mediating intrinsic TRAIL resistance among EOC cells and that an important mechanism by which Akt activation contributes to TRAIL resistance is by regulating the expression of pro-apoptotic protein Bid. Given these data, we speculate that Akt activation may be a potential biomarker to predict patient's response to TRAIL therapy and that the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt pathway can become one of the strategies to overcome resistance to TRAIL therapy in ovarian cancer.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Howard D. Hahn / The absence of participation in physical activity is a public health concern for all people, but even more of a problem for the estimated 52 million Americans with disabilities (Rimmer 2005). Besides the physical health benefits derived from physical activity, when a trail leads through a natural setting, research shows that significant sensory and cognitive benefits can also be gained which leads to greater well-being (Maller et al. 2005; Hull and Michael 1995; Kaplan 1995; Irvine and Katherine 2002). Furthermore, when trails are planned and constructed in natural settings, most of the attention is directed at minimizing environmental impacts at the exclusion of maximizing the physical, sensory, and cognitive experience of users. This shortcoming is compounded when the user has disabilities. Besides typical disability concerns related to mobility, disabilities to be better accommodated in trail design also include vision and hearing impairments. The focus of this research is investigating how trail planning and design in natural settings can better provide for the physical, sensory, and cognitive experience of users, particularly those users who have disabilities. Findings informed the development of Natural Trail Design Guidelines prepared for the City of Manhattan Parks and Recreation Department who is seeking to improve the City’s existing natural trails. Sample designs for trail enhancements at Anneberg Park and the Konza Prairie near Manhattan, Kansas were proposed. Once implemented and assessed to be found successful, the Natural Trail Design Guidelines might be transferable to other locations.

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This paper is concerned with the use of the choice experiment method for modeling the demand for snowmobiling . The Choice Experiment includes five attributes, standard, composition, length, price day card and experience along trail. The paper estimates the snowmobile owners’ preferences and the most preferred attributes, including their will-ingness to pay for a daytrip on groomed snowmobile trail. The data consists of the an-swers from 479 registered snowmobile owners, who answered two hypothetical choice questions each. Estimating using the multinominal logit model, it is found that snow-mobilers on average are willing to pay 22.5 SEK for one day of snowmobiling on a trail with quality described as skidded every 14th day. Furthermore, it is found that the WTP increases with the quality of trail grooming. The result of this paper can be used as a yardstick for snowmobile clubs wanting to develop their trail net worth, organizations and companies developing snowmobiling as a recreational activities and marketers in-terested in marketing snowmobiling as recreational activities.

This thesis investigates the role architecture can play in structuring a shelter-to-shelter kayaking route in Guysborough County, Nova Scotia. Without the confines and linearity of a terrestrial course, the trail-less waterway invites the user to meander and define a unique and personal experience. With almost limitless physical trajectories over the site, the route is mediated through nodes of importance. It is through the recognition and design of these nodes that the structure of the waterway is defined and interpreted. By turning the attention of visitors towards the surrounding landscape, both built and natural, the trail infrastructure invites one to pause, reflect and inhabit. The traveller bears witness to the particulars of the route through the spatial, material and ambient fabric of the path.

The purpose of this qualitative thesis is to describe the common elements of sense of place in the lived experiences of volunteer trail managers. Through a triangulation of data gathered from secondary research, interviews with trail managers, and participation observation of hikers, I sought to draw out the essence of the trail manager???s sense of place towards their trail experience and connect this back to ongoing management challenges in the organization. Some of these challenges include declining membership, limited lines of communication, and problematic landowner relations. Themes around this common sense of place are situated within meanings, relationship/ attachments, emotions, and behaviors towards the trail experience. Interrelationships between sense of place, phenomenology, and trail management are also highlighted.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on January 7, 2007) Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M. Env. St.)--University of Adelaide, Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, 1993? / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 153-163).