abstract: Background: Understanding an athlete’s workload is one way to determine the likelihood of receiving a sports injury. Workload variables are categorized as either internal load (IL) such as heart rate, or external load (EL) which include speed, distance or volume. Objective: This study investigated the correlation between IL and EL measured by micro-technology in female college soccer players. In addition, the utility of IL and EL to predict risk of soft tissue injury on lower limbs was examined. Method: 23 NCAA Division One women soccer players 19.2 ± 1.2 years old, 168.2 ± 7.3 cm, and 141.0 ± 17.9 kg were recruited. Only field players with no prior lower limb injuries were included. IL measurements collected were ratings of perceived exertion (S-RPE), average heart rate (Avg-HR), training impulse (TRIMP i.e., HR x time) and estimated maximum heart rate (Max HR). Total distance (TD), average speed (Avg-Spd), high speed running distance (HSR), estimated maximum speed (Max speed) and intensity volume index (VI index) were identified as EL. The workload data were categorized as being either acute or chronic. Acute was defined as the measured average workload the seven days immediately prior to the injury, while chronic workload meant the average workload 21 days before the athletes were hurt. Spearman correlation was used to examine the relationships between IL and EL and one-way ANOVA and Kruskal Wallis tests were conducted to investigate the mean differences between injury groups. Results: There were significant positive correlations between S-RPE and TD (r = .82, p < .001), TRIMP and TD (r =.75, p < .001), Avg-HR and Avg-Spd (r = .80, p < .001), and H-HR zone and HSR (r = .60, p < .001). The results indicated that the acute Avg-HR, the A/C ratio of Avg-Spd and VI index were significantly (p = .001) higher in the injured compared to the non-injured group. Conclusion: The study indicated that internal and external load were significantly correlated in this group of female soccer players. Also, acute Avg-HR and A/C of speed and volume index may predict the risk of soft-tissue injury in female athletes. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Exercise and Wellness 2018

O objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar a influência do modelo tradicional de periodização (com picos múltiplos) sobre a aptidão física em testes de campo, desempenho competitivo e variação técnica em competições de judô. Neste sentido, a amostra foi composta por atletas das classes Juvenil e Júnior que foram monitorados ao longo de duas temporadas anuais de treinamento (12 atletas por temporada), nas quais foram quantificados parâmetros da carga interna (Carga de Treinamento e o Training Strain) de cada período de treinamento, por meio da percepção subjetiva de esforço da sessão. O desempenho físico foi avaliado em momentos de alteração dos períodos de treinamento, mensurando a potência de membros inferiores (salto horizontal), a resistência de força dinâmica de membros superiores (teste de barra com o judogi) e a aptidão aeróbia e anaeróbia em situação específica (SJFT - Special Judo Fitness Test). Adicionalmente, nas competições principais, os combates foram filmados para posterior quantificação do desempenho competitivo (percentual de vitórias, pontos conquistados, pontos sofridos, índice de eficiência de ataque e índices de efetividade) e da variação técnica (técnicas de projeção, técnicas de domínio e direções dos ataques efetivos). As variáveis foram comparadas via modelo misto para análise de medidas repetidas, seguido por teste de Bonferroni. As associações entre as variáveis foram testadas via coeficiente de correlação de Pearson ou de Spearman. Na temporada 2011, houve diferenças (P < 0,05) na Carga de Treinamento, Training Strain, salto horizontal, teste de barra com o judogi, percentual de vitórias, pontos conquistados, pontos sofridos, índice de eficiência de ataque, direções de ataque, técnicas de projeção e de domínio, bem como correlação entre a Carga de Treinamento três dias antes do Campeonato Paulista Fase Regional e o índice de eficiência de ataque nesta competição (r = - 0,832; P = 0,001; muito grande). Na temporada 2012, verificou-se diferenças (P < 0,05) na Carga de Treinamento, Training Strain, salto horizontal, teste de barra com o judogi, nas variáveis número de projeções, frequência cardíaca após um minuto de repouso e índice do SJFT, pontos conquistados e técnicas de projeção efetivas, além de correlações entre o número de projeções no SJFT com o índice de eficiência de ataque (r = 0,629; P = 0,028; grande) e o percentual de vitórias (r = 0,634; P = 0,027; grande) no Campeonato Paulista Fase Inter-regional. A relevância do monitoramento da carga interna de treinamento e do desempenho físico foi reforçada pelas associações com parâmetros de desempenho competitivo. Embora os indicadores de desempenho físico, desempenho competitivo e variação técnica tenham sofrido alterações ao longo das temporadas, estas variações ocorreram de maneira dessincronizadas, aparentemente sem influência das cargas de treinamento adotadas. Assim, os resultados do presente estudo indicam que, para jovens atletas de judô, o modelo tradicional de periodização (com picos múltiplos) não desenvolve adaptações contínuas sobre os parâmetros de desempenho analisados, mas parece ser eficiente na elevação do desempenho físico no início da temporada e posterior estabilização destas adaptações / The aim of this study was investigate the influence of the traditional periodization model (with multiple peaks) on physical fitness in field tests, competitive performance and technical variation in judo competitions. In this sense, the sample consisted of Junior and Cadet athletes who were monitored over two annual training seasons (12 athletes per season) in which internal training load parameters (Training Load and Training Strain) of each training period were quantified through the session rating of perceived exertion. Physical performance was evaluated when the periods of training were changed, measuring lower limbs muscle power (standing long jump), upper limbs dynamic strength endurance (dynamic judogi chin up) and aerobic and anaerobic fitness in a specific situation (SJFT - Special Judo Fitness Test). Additionally, in main competitions, fights were filmed for later quantification of competitive performance (winning percentage, points scored, points conceded, attack efficiency index and effectiveness index) and technical variation (throwing techniques, groundwork techniques and directions of throws). The variables were compared by mixed model for repeated measures analysis, followed by Bonferroni test. The associations among variables were tested by Pearson\'s or Spearman\'s correlation coefficient. In the 2011 season, there were differences (P <0.05) in the Training Load, Training Strain, standing long jump, dynamic judogi chin up, winning percentage, points scored, points conceded, attack efficiency index, directions of throws and throwing techniques, in addition to correlation between the Training Load three days before a regional championship and the attack efficiency index in this competition (r = - 0.832; P = 0.001; very large). In 2012 season, there were differences (P <0.05) in Training Load, Training Strain, standing long jump, dynamic judogi chin up, SJFT variables (number of throws, heart rate one minute after the test and index), points scored and throwing techniques, in addition to correlations between the number of throws in SJFT with the attack efficiency index (r = 0.629; P = 0.028; large) and winning percentage (r = 0.634; P = 0.027; large) in a inter-regional championship. The relevance of monitoring the internal training load and the physical performance was reinforced by the associations with competitive performance parameters. Although physical performance, competitive performance and technical variation have changed over the seasons, these variations occurred in an unsynchronized way, apparently without influence of the training loads adopted. Thus, the results of this study indicate that for young judo athletes, the traditional periodization model (with multiple peaks) does not develop continuous adaptations of the performance parameters analyzed, but it seems to be effective in increasing the physical performance early in the season and subsequent stabilization of the adaptations

O objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar a influência do modelo tradicional de periodização (com picos múltiplos) sobre a aptidão física em testes de campo, desempenho competitivo e variação técnica em competições de judô. Neste sentido, a amostra foi composta por atletas das classes Juvenil e Júnior que foram monitorados ao longo de duas temporadas anuais de treinamento (12 atletas por temporada), nas quais foram quantificados parâmetros da carga interna (Carga de Treinamento e o Training Strain) de cada período de treinamento, por meio da percepção subjetiva de esforço da sessão. O desempenho físico foi avaliado em momentos de alteração dos períodos de treinamento, mensurando a potência de membros inferiores (salto horizontal), a resistência de força dinâmica de membros superiores (teste de barra com o judogi) e a aptidão aeróbia e anaeróbia em situação específica (SJFT - Special Judo Fitness Test). Adicionalmente, nas competições principais, os combates foram filmados para posterior quantificação do desempenho competitivo (percentual de vitórias, pontos conquistados, pontos sofridos, índice de eficiência de ataque e índices de efetividade) e da variação técnica (técnicas de projeção, técnicas de domínio e direções dos ataques efetivos). As variáveis foram comparadas via modelo misto para análise de medidas repetidas, seguido por teste de Bonferroni. As associações entre as variáveis foram testadas via coeficiente de correlação de Pearson ou de Spearman. Na temporada 2011, houve diferenças (P < 0,05) na Carga de Treinamento, Training Strain, salto horizontal, teste de barra com o judogi, percentual de vitórias, pontos conquistados, pontos sofridos, índice de eficiência de ataque, direções de ataque, técnicas de projeção e de domínio, bem como correlação entre a Carga de Treinamento três dias antes do Campeonato Paulista Fase Regional e o índice de eficiência de ataque nesta competição (r = - 0,832; P = 0,001; muito grande). Na temporada 2012, verificou-se diferenças (P < 0,05) na Carga de Treinamento, Training Strain, salto horizontal, teste de barra com o judogi, nas variáveis número de projeções, frequência cardíaca após um minuto de repouso e índice do SJFT, pontos conquistados e técnicas de projeção efetivas, além de correlações entre o número de projeções no SJFT com o índice de eficiência de ataque (r = 0,629; P = 0,028; grande) e o percentual de vitórias (r = 0,634; P = 0,027; grande) no Campeonato Paulista Fase Inter-regional. A relevância do monitoramento da carga interna de treinamento e do desempenho físico foi reforçada pelas associações com parâmetros de desempenho competitivo. Embora os indicadores de desempenho físico, desempenho competitivo e variação técnica tenham sofrido alterações ao longo das temporadas, estas variações ocorreram de maneira dessincronizadas, aparentemente sem influência das cargas de treinamento adotadas. Assim, os resultados do presente estudo indicam que, para jovens atletas de judô, o modelo tradicional de periodização (com picos múltiplos) não desenvolve adaptações contínuas sobre os parâmetros de desempenho analisados, mas parece ser eficiente na elevação do desempenho físico no início da temporada e posterior estabilização destas adaptações / The aim of this study was investigate the influence of the traditional periodization model (with multiple peaks) on physical fitness in field tests, competitive performance and technical variation in judo competitions. In this sense, the sample consisted of Junior and Cadet athletes who were monitored over two annual training seasons (12 athletes per season) in which internal training load parameters (Training Load and Training Strain) of each training period were quantified through the session rating of perceived exertion. Physical performance was evaluated when the periods of training were changed, measuring lower limbs muscle power (standing long jump), upper limbs dynamic strength endurance (dynamic judogi chin up) and aerobic and anaerobic fitness in a specific situation (SJFT - Special Judo Fitness Test). Additionally, in main competitions, fights were filmed for later quantification of competitive performance (winning percentage, points scored, points conceded, attack efficiency index and effectiveness index) and technical variation (throwing techniques, groundwork techniques and directions of throws). The variables were compared by mixed model for repeated measures analysis, followed by Bonferroni test. The associations among variables were tested by Pearson\'s or Spearman\'s correlation coefficient. In the 2011 season, there were differences (P <0.05) in the Training Load, Training Strain, standing long jump, dynamic judogi chin up, winning percentage, points scored, points conceded, attack efficiency index, directions of throws and throwing techniques, in addition to correlation between the Training Load three days before a regional championship and the attack efficiency index in this competition (r = - 0.832; P = 0.001; very large). In 2012 season, there were differences (P <0.05) in Training Load, Training Strain, standing long jump, dynamic judogi chin up, SJFT variables (number of throws, heart rate one minute after the test and index), points scored and throwing techniques, in addition to correlations between the number of throws in SJFT with the attack efficiency index (r = 0.629; P = 0.028; large) and winning percentage (r = 0.634; P = 0.027; large) in a inter-regional championship. The relevance of monitoring the internal training load and the physical performance was reinforced by the associations with competitive performance parameters. Although physical performance, competitive performance and technical variation have changed over the seasons, these variations occurred in an unsynchronized way, apparently without influence of the training loads adopted. Thus, the results of this study indicate that for young judo athletes, the traditional periodization model (with multiple peaks) does not develop continuous adaptations of the performance parameters analyzed, but it seems to be effective in increasing the physical performance early in the season and subsequent stabilization of the adaptations

The overall purpose of this thesis was to validate the SRSS questionnaire. This was accomplished by conducting a single investigation using eleven well-trained weightlifters with at least one year of competition experience. These weightlifters completed five testing sessions over the course of five microcycles leading up to a competition. Every testing session took place on Monday morning prior to regular training and included: hydration testing, SRSS questionnaire, blood draws followed by a standardized warm-up protocol and squat jumps (SJ) with 0kg and 20kg. While the majority of SRSS recovery and stress items did not change with changes in VL or VLd, emotional balance and lack of activation did correlate with changes in VLd. Additionally, decreases in SRSS recovery items physical performance capability and emotional balance coincide with decreases in squat jump height and increases in cortisol following the first taper microcycle. The findings of this investigation partly support the SRSS as a monitoring tool for weightlifters.

Increasing automation in aviation is impacting the role of the air traffic controller (ATCO). New support tools and changing work environments require the monitoring of multiple display systems and the detection of potential system failures. When training these requirements, eye tracking holds great promise for gaining a deeper insight into trainees’ perceptual and cognitive processes. Because there are hardly any studies on the effects of training on gaze behavior in air traffic control (ATC), the aim of the present work was to evaluate the applicability of the method in this domain. Three experimental studies were conducted with novices with no ATC experience. These investigated whether training effects are reflected not only in common performance measures such as accuracy and speed, but also in gaze parameters such as relative fixation count, time to first fixation, and normalized entropy. They further examined to what extent future monitoring tasks can be trained and what kind of additional factors play a role in this. An adapted version of the abstract monitoring test (MonT) was used to investigate the research questions. Each study consisted of three test blocks in which air traffic had to be monitored in up to three automatically controlled airspaces. In the first study (N = 60), the adapted simulation environment was evaluated, and initial results on the effect of practice were collected. Improvements, which occurred primarily at the beginning of the test, were reflected in a more accurate failure detection performance and a more strategic gaze behavior. The traffic load, and therefore the amount of information to be monitored, played a decisive role in the results. The second study (N = 139) investigated the influence of different interventions for directing attention. Highlighting relevant information (bottom-up approach) moderated the effect of practice significantly more than an attention strategy (top-down approach) or no intervention (control). Relevant information was viewed more frequently and failures were anticipated more easily—even when a manual control task was added. Repeating the test after an average of four months showed little to no significant changes in performance and gaze behavior (N = 19). Overall, with an average detection rate of 83%, the results indicate that future monitoring can be trained to a high level. However, the design of the system, the difficulty of the task, and the prior knowledge of the individual must always be considered. Because it was shown that gaze behavior predicted performance, the recording of eye movements in future ATC training is encouraged. In this context, current developments in the use of artificial intelligence promise to facilitate the classification of individual scan patterns and promote adaptive training.

Running economy is well established as a primary determinant of endurance running performance. However, there is a lack of clarity about the preferred measurement of running economy, its primary limiting factors and the most robust methods enhance running economy in highly trained athletes. Therefore, this thesis investigated the running economy of highly trained runners, exploring the reliability and validity of measures of running economy to deduce its most appropriate quantification, the application of innovative methods to enhance our understanding of an athlete s running economy, and a novel training method to enhance running economy. Chapter 3 revealed that energy cost and oxygen cost were shown to provide similarly high levels of reliability (typical error of measurement ~3%) for highly trained endurance runners when assessed using a short-duration incremental submaximal exercise protocol. In chapter 4, the analysis of a large cohort of highly trained endurance runners revealed that energy cost increased in a stepwise manner with increments in running speed (P<0.001), however oxygen cost remained consistent (P=0.54) across running speed; indicating that oxygen cost might not be an appropriate measure of running economy. Chapter 5 demonstrated that the inter-individual variation in the magnitude of changes in energy cost between different gradients (i.e. from flat running to uphill/downhill running) in highly trained runners was low. However, a disparity between the energy saving of running on a -5% gradient (-17%) and the additional energy cost of running on a +5% gradient (+32%) was evident. The cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of a large cohort of highly trained runners in chapter 6 revealed a small (r=0.25) and moderate (r=0.35) association between energy cost and maximal oxygen uptake, respectively. Finally, chapter 7 demonstrated that eight weeks of supplementary downhill run training at vLTP in existing training programmes does not enhance running economy in already well trained runners (1.22 vs 1.20 kcal kg-1 km-1; P=0.41), despite a significant increase (+2.4%) in the velocity at lactate turnpoint. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that energy cost, expressed as kcal kg-1 km-1, provides a reliable and valid method to quantify running economy in trained distance runners. However, further investigation is required to identify robust training methods to enhance running economy in this already highly trained population.