O treinamento de força promove hipertrofia muscular esquelética e aumento da capacidade de gerar força. É preconizado que a ocorrência dessas adaptações depende da especificidade do estímulo de treinamento. De acordo com esse princípio, é esperado que as respostas adaptativas fossem específicas ao estímulo aplicado. Entretanto, tem sido observado, por exemplo, que os modelos de treinamento de força e treinamento de potência, relacionados especificamente a adaptações centrais, induzem semelhantes ganhos em força e hipertrofia. Diante dessas evidências, surgiram questionamentos sobre a validade desse princípio. Nesse sentido, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do treinamento de força e potência sobre a expressão do gene da miostatina (MSTN), associada ao controle do tamanho do músculo esquelético, e de genes relacionado a essa via de sinalização: FLST, FL3, GASP-1, ActIIB, SMAD-7 e FOXO-3A. Homens saudáveis, fisicamente ativos, foram randomicamente distribuídos, de forma balanceada, em três grupos: controle, força e potência. Os grupos treinados foram submetidos a oito semanas de intervenção (treinamento de força e treinamento de potência). Foram coletadas amostras de tecido muscular (vasto lateral) via biópsia percutânea nas condições pré e pós-treinamento. Essas amostras foram utilizadas para a análise da expressão de genes envolvidos na sinalização da MSTN por meio da PCR em tempo real. Não foi verificada alteração na expressão gênica de MSTN, ActIIB, GASP-1 e FOXO-3A após o treinamento de força e o treinamento de potência. Porém, foram observadas alterações no conteúdo de RNAm para FLST, FL3 e SMAD-7. Essas alterações foram semelhantes entre os distintos protocolos de treinamento. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que ambos os modelos de treinamento de força são capazes de induzir resposta similar sobre a expressão de genes envolvidos na sinalização da MSTN. A ausência de respostas específicas dentro do período investigado aponta para a necessidade de investigar o curso temporal das adaptações aos diferentes modelos de treinamento de força em longo prazo / Resistance training promotes skeletal muscle hypertrophy and increased ability to generate force. It is recommended that the occurrence of these adaptations depend on the specificity of the training stimulus. According to this principle, it is expected that the adaptive responses were specific to stimuli applied. However, it has been observed, for example, that models of strength training and power training, specifically related to central adaptations, induce similar gains in strength and hypertrophy. Given this evidence, questions arose about the validity of this principle. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of strength training and power on the expression of the myostatin gene (MSTN) associated with the control of skeletal muscle size and genes related to this signaling pathway: FLST, FL3, GASP-1, ActIIB, SMAD-7 and FOXO-7-3A. Men healthy, physically active, were randomly divided into three groups: control, strength and power. The trained groups underwent eight weeks of intervention (strength training and power training). Samples pre-and post-training were collected from muscle tissue by percutaneous biopsy of the vastus lateralis. These samples were used for analysis of the expression of genes involved in signaling MSTN by real time PCR. No change was observed in gene expression of MSTN, ActIIB, GASP-1 and FOXO-3A after strength training and power training. However, changes were observed in the content of mRNA for FLST, FL3 and SMAD-7. These changes were similar among the different training protocols. The results of this study suggest that both models of resistance training are able to induce a similar response on the expression of genes involved in signaling MSTN. The absence of specific responses within the investigated period points to the need to investigate the time course of adaptations to different models of resistance training in the long term

O treinamento de força promove hipertrofia muscular esquelética e aumento da capacidade de gerar força. É preconizado que a ocorrência dessas adaptações depende da especificidade do estímulo de treinamento. De acordo com esse princípio, é esperado que as respostas adaptativas fossem específicas ao estímulo aplicado. Entretanto, tem sido observado, por exemplo, que os modelos de treinamento de força e treinamento de potência, relacionados especificamente a adaptações centrais, induzem semelhantes ganhos em força e hipertrofia. Diante dessas evidências, surgiram questionamentos sobre a validade desse princípio. Nesse sentido, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do treinamento de força e potência sobre a expressão do gene da miostatina (MSTN), associada ao controle do tamanho do músculo esquelético, e de genes relacionado a essa via de sinalização: FLST, FL3, GASP-1, ActIIB, SMAD-7 e FOXO-3A. Homens saudáveis, fisicamente ativos, foram randomicamente distribuídos, de forma balanceada, em três grupos: controle, força e potência. Os grupos treinados foram submetidos a oito semanas de intervenção (treinamento de força e treinamento de potência). Foram coletadas amostras de tecido muscular (vasto lateral) via biópsia percutânea nas condições pré e pós-treinamento. Essas amostras foram utilizadas para a análise da expressão de genes envolvidos na sinalização da MSTN por meio da PCR em tempo real. Não foi verificada alteração na expressão gênica de MSTN, ActIIB, GASP-1 e FOXO-3A após o treinamento de força e o treinamento de potência. Porém, foram observadas alterações no conteúdo de RNAm para FLST, FL3 e SMAD-7. Essas alterações foram semelhantes entre os distintos protocolos de treinamento. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que ambos os modelos de treinamento de força são capazes de induzir resposta similar sobre a expressão de genes envolvidos na sinalização da MSTN. A ausência de respostas específicas dentro do período investigado aponta para a necessidade de investigar o curso temporal das adaptações aos diferentes modelos de treinamento de força em longo prazo / Resistance training promotes skeletal muscle hypertrophy and increased ability to generate force. It is recommended that the occurrence of these adaptations depend on the specificity of the training stimulus. According to this principle, it is expected that the adaptive responses were specific to stimuli applied. However, it has been observed, for example, that models of strength training and power training, specifically related to central adaptations, induce similar gains in strength and hypertrophy. Given this evidence, questions arose about the validity of this principle. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of strength training and power on the expression of the myostatin gene (MSTN) associated with the control of skeletal muscle size and genes related to this signaling pathway: FLST, FL3, GASP-1, ActIIB, SMAD-7 and FOXO-7-3A. Men healthy, physically active, were randomly divided into three groups: control, strength and power. The trained groups underwent eight weeks of intervention (strength training and power training). Samples pre-and post-training were collected from muscle tissue by percutaneous biopsy of the vastus lateralis. These samples were used for analysis of the expression of genes involved in signaling MSTN by real time PCR. No change was observed in gene expression of MSTN, ActIIB, GASP-1 and FOXO-3A after strength training and power training. However, changes were observed in the content of mRNA for FLST, FL3 and SMAD-7. These changes were similar among the different training protocols. The results of this study suggest that both models of resistance training are able to induce a similar response on the expression of genes involved in signaling MSTN. The absence of specific responses within the investigated period points to the need to investigate the time course of adaptations to different models of resistance training in the long term

Within team sports, coaches aim to improve physical preparation by optimising the training process specific to competition. Unfortunately, at the elite level of wheelchair rugby (WCR) evidence-based information to guide this process is currently lacking. The present thesis investigates measures of external load during elite competition and explores whether this can be translated to inform current training practices. The first study established the suitability of a radio frequency-based, indoor tracking system (ITS) for the collection of movements specific to WCR. Minimal relative distance errors (< 0.2%) were seen across different sampling frequencies. Peak speed displayed the greatest relative error in 4 Hz tags (2%), with significantly lower errors observed in higher frequency tags (< 1%). The ITS was therefore deemed an acceptable tool for quantifying external load specific to WCR using a sampling frequency of 8 or 16 Hz. The external demands of elite competition were determined in Chapters 4 and 5. Notable differences in the volume of activity were displayed across the International Wheelchair Rugby Federation (IWRF) classification groups. However, the specific positional requirements of low-point (LP) and high-point players (HP) appeared to influence the intensity of external load (Chapter 4). Chapter 5 extended this work and established that peak speed and the ability to perform at high-intensities were best associated with successful mobility performance in WCR, as defined by team rank. This was further shown to be roledependent, whereby high-ranked HP players achieved greater peak speeds and performed more high-intensity activities (HIA) than respective lower-ranked players. Comparisons between the current external demands of training were then compared to that of competition (Chapter 6). Conditioning drills were shown to exceed the demands of competition, irrespective of classification. Notable differences in skill-based and game related drills were displayed across player classifications, whereby both were shown to be roledependent. Although game-simulation drills provided the best representation of competition, the duration appeared important since this factor influenced the results (Chapter 6). When the format of these drills were further modified (Chapter 7), drills containing fewer players increased the volume and intensity of training, specifically in HP. Whilst a 30-second shotclock elicited no changes in external load, differences were revealed when the shot-clock was further reduced to 15-s. Coaches can therefore modify the external training response by making subtle changes to the format of game-simulation drills. This thesis revealed that functional classification and positional-role are key factors during competition, and training should therefore be structured with this in mind. Conditioning drills can be used to elicit a progressive overload in the external responses, whilst game-simulation drills can provide the best representation of competition. Given the importance of gamesimulation drills, the combination of different formats throughout training sessions are critical in order to maximise the preparation of elite WCR players.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the acceleration phase of sprinting could be split into subphases specific to the competitive demands of a soccer match by comparing sprint metrics at various sprint distances in Division I men's soccer players. Twenty-three Division I men's soccer athletes completed 2 maximal-effort 20-m sprints from a standing start position through an optical measurement system. Sprint metrics measured included sprint velocity (SV), step length (SL), step frequency (SF), and ground contact time (GCT). Each metric was recorded at approximately 2.5, 6, and 12 m. Sprint metrics at each distance were compared using a 2-tailed, 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance. The results indicated that SV, SL, and SF were statistically greater at 12 m in comparison with 6 m (p < 0.001) and 2.5 m (p < 0.001), whereas GCT was statistically shorter at 12 m compared with 6 m (p < 0.001) and 2.5 m (p < 0.001). In addition, sprint metrics at 6 m also displayed the same relationships when compared to 2.5 m, with SV, SL, and SF being statistically greater (p < 0.001) at this distance, and GCT being statistically shorter (p < 0.001) as well. These results suggest that the acceleration phase may effectively be differentiated into early, mid, and late subphases based on differences in key sprint metrics at distances of 2.5, 6, and 12 m, respectively, in Division I men's soccer athletes.