Recent scholarship has suggested that transformist ideas had a wider currency in Edinburgh in the first half of nineteenth century than had previously been acknowledged. The first objective of this study is to delve deeper into the reception of transformist theories there in the years 1790 to 1844. The main figures whose theories on the transmutation of species were discussed in contemporary sources are Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), George-Louis Leclerc, Conte de Buffon (1707–1788), Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802), Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844); this study therefore concentrates on the reception of their work. The principle Edinburgh contexts in which the reception of their theories is explored are the University of Edinburgh, the extra-mural medical schools and the city’s various learned societies and scientific journals, although the opinions of all those in Edinburgh known to have discussed transformism in this period are considered. The sources examined reveal that transformist theories were largely received with interest. Discussion of them was generally confined to scientific, or naturalistic, arguments, except in the cases of some Evangelical natural historians, who rejected them outright on theological grounds. This thesis also explores how some thinkers in Edinburgh went beyond discussing received ideas about transformism and developed their own theories, synthesising the work of earlier thinkers. The most important of these were Robert Edmond Grant (1793– 1874), Robert Jameson (1774–1854), Robert Knox (1791–1862) and Henry H. Cheek (1807–33). This thesis also explores the genesis of the later transformist theory of Robert Chambers (1802–71), the anonymous author of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844), to establish to what extent he may have been influenced by the earlier transformists of the 1820s and 30s. Events in Edinburgh in the 1820s also had a wider resonance for the history of evolutionary ideas in Britain, as Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was a student at the University of Edinburgh between 1825 and 1827. It has long been suspected that his experiences in Edinburgh had a larger part to play in the development of his theory of evolution than he later cared to admit. Careful to avoid associating himself with the more speculative theories of earlier transformist thinkers, Darwin made little mention of them in his published writings. We already know, however, that Darwin had a close relationship with Grant during his time in Edinburgh and must have been familiar with his transformist ideas. This thesis aims to show to what extent the intellectual environment that Darwin found himself in was suffused with the idea of the transmutation of species. In broad outline, it can be concluded that transformism was much less controversial in Edinburgh in the first half of the nineteenth century than might be supposed from the prevailing historiography and had a significant number of sympathisers and adherents.

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This thesis provides the first comprehensive study of an eminent but oft-overlooked Victorian polymath, with the overarching aims of assessing his contributions to nineteenth-century intellectual life and of exploring the mutual relations between science and religion in his work. One of the towering figures of the Victorian scientific establishment, William Carpenter (1813-1885), F.R.S, was a famous physiologist and public figure. He is most remembered for his concept of 'unconscious cerebration' which contributed to the emergence of the disciplines of neurology and modern psychology, but Carpenter was also noted amongst his peers for his evolutionary approach to the study of the unicellular marine invertebrates known as the foraminifera. As a lifelong practicing Unitarian, Carpenter's outspoken support for evolutionary theory made him an exemplary advocate of the compatibility between rational thought and Christian belief amidst the Victorian debate about science and religion. As the Registrar of the University of London during its formative years, Carpenter also had a nationwide impact on the fortunes of scientific education and secondary education as a whole. Finally, as a populariser of science and public moralist, "Dr. Carpenter" was also well known to the Victorian public as one of the most outspoken critics of spiritualism, alleged paranormal phenomena, and superstition more generally. Nevertheless, no systematic study of Carpenter's work had until now been carried out, and the commonly held view that he lacked originality as a scientist had not been fully questioned. The current study therefore aims to review Carpenter's achievements and trace his intellectual legacy. As an intellectual biography, it argues that focusing on the now lesser-known members of the British intelligentsia can shine new light on the context of the professionalization of science in Victorian Britain. In its focus on science and religion, this thesis argues that a deeper understanding of Carpenter's Unitarianism must feature at the heart of any endeavour to analyse his work. Previous references to Carpenter either bypassed Unitarianism and its nineteenth-century transformations, or reduced Unitarian thought to certain core tenets that fell short of uncovering Carpenter's philosophical pursuits. Carpenter's Unitarianism is still often equated with the rationalism and mortalism that defined late eighteenth-century Unitarianism, and this failure to recognise how much Carpenter's own faith had departed from earlier strands of Unitarian belief has led to some misinterpretations of his motives. The current thesis therefore offers fresh interpretations of Carpenter's work, based on new archival material and recent historical studies of the shifting priorities shaping the more romantic and emotional spirituality of nineteenth-century Unitarianism. Taking an integrative approach to Carpenter's various projects makes it possible to show how seminal many of his ideas were, and how his Unitarianism, both in its social and spiritual dimensions, influenced his professional, political and intellectual choices. The biographical angle taken in this thesis also makes it possible to uncover a degree of epistemological coherence underpinning Carpenter's thought, and to argue that Carpenter's efforts to transcend conflicting viewpoints partook of his wider social and metaphysical aims.