Este trabalho apresenta uma ferramenta configurável, denominada de CFT-tool, capaz de aplicar automaticamente técnicas de detecção de erros em software com o objetivo de proteger processadores com diferentes arquiteturas e organizações contra falhas transientes no hardware. As técnicas baseadas em redundância e comparação são aplicadas pela CFT-tool no código assembly de um programa desprotegido, compilado para a arquitetura alvo. A ferramenta desenvolvida foi validada utilizando dois processadores distintos: miniMIPS e LEON3. O processador miniMIPS foi utilizado para verificar a eficiência, em termos de taxa de detecção de erros, tempo de execução e ocupação de memória, das técnicas de detecção em software aplicadas pela CFT-tool, comparando os resultados obtidos com os presentes na literatura. O processador LEON3 foi selecionado por ser amplamente utilizado em aplicações espaciais e por ser baseado em uma arquitetura diferente da arquitetura do processador miniMIPS. Com o processador LEON3 é verificada a configurabilidade da CFT-tool, isto é, a capacidade dela de aplicar técnicas de detecção em software em um código compilado para um diferente processador, o mantendo funcional e sendo capaz de detectar erros. A CFT-tool pode ser utilizada para proteger programas para outras arquiteturas e organizações através da modificação dos arquivos de configuração da ferramenta. A configuração das técnicas é definida segundo as especificações da aplicação, recursos do processador e seleções do usuário. Programas foram protegidos e falhas foram injetadas em nível lógico em ambos os processadores. Para o processador miniMIPS, as taxas de detecção de erros, os tempos de execução e as ocupações de memórias dos programas protegidos se mostraram compatíveis com os resultados presentes na literatura. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para o processador LEON3. Diferenças entre os resultados ocorrem devido às características da arquitetura. A ferramenta CFT-tool por ser configurável pode proteger o código na integralidade ou selecionar partes do código e registradores que serão redundantes e protegidos. A vantagem de proteger parte do código é reduzir o custo final em termos de tempo de processamento e ocupação de memória. Uma análise do impacto da seleção seletiva de registradores na taxa de detecção de erros é apresentada. E diretivas de alcançar um comprometimento ótimo entre quantidade de registradores protegidos, taxa de detecção de erros e custo são discutidas. / This work presents a configurable tool, called CFT-tool, capable of automatically applying software-based error detection techniques aiming to protect processors with different architectures and organizations against transient faults in the hardware. The techniques are based on redundancy and comparison. They are applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of an unprotected program, compiled to the target architecture. The developed tool was validated using two distinct processors: miniMIPS and LEON3. The miniMIPS processor has been utilized to verify the efficiency of the software-based techniques applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of unprotected programs in terms of error detection rate, runtime and memory occupation, comparing the obtained results with those presented in the literature. The LEON3 processor was selected because it is largely adopted in space applications and because it is based on a different architecture that miniMIPS processor. The configurability of the CFT-tool is verified with the LEON3 processor, that is, the capability of the tool at applying software-based detection techniques in a code compiled to a different processor, maintaining it functional and capable of detecting errors. The CFT-tool can be utilized to protect programs compiled to other architectures and organizations by modifying the configuration files of the tool. The configuration of the techniques is defined by the specifications of the application, processor resources and selections of the user. Programs were protected and faults were injected in logical level in both processors. When using the miniMIPS processor, the error detection rates, runtimes and memory occupations of the protected programs are comparable to the results presents in the literature. Similar results are reached with the LEON3 processor. Differences between the results are due to architecture features. The CFT-tool can be configurable to protect the entire code or to select portions of the code or registers that will be redundant and protected. The advantage of protecting portions of the code is to reduce the final cost in terms of runtime and memory occupation. An analysis of the impact of selective selection of registers in the error detection rate is also presented. And policies to reach an optimum committal between amount of protected registers, error detection rate and cost are discussed.

Partículas radioativas, ao atingirem o hardware dos sistemas computacionais, podem resultar em comportamentos inesperados durante a execução de um software. Tais comportamentos inesperados podem persistir por toda a vida útil do sistema ou podem ter uma duração limitada. Nesse último caso, temos o que chamamos de falhas transientes. Falhas transientes podem fazer com que as instruções do programa executem em uma sequência incorreta, o que chamamos de erros de fluxo de controle (Control-flow errors - CFEs). Estudos mostram que entre 33% e 77% das falhas transientes que afetam o hardware se manifestam como erros de fluxo de controle, dependendo do tipo do processador. Se o sistema não realizar nenhuma verificação em tempo de execução, um erro de fluxo de controle pode não ser detectado, o que pode resultar em uma execução incorreta do programa. Sistemas projetados para aplicações de baixo custo voltados para sistemas embarcados, onde os custos e desempenho são os fatores principais, utilizam técnicas baseadas em software para aumentar a confiabilidade do sistema. As técnicas baseadas em software para detecção de CFEs são conhecidas como signature monitoring ou signature checking. Essas técnicas introduzem código extra em todos os blocos básicos do programa com a finalidade de detectar os CFEs. Esse código extra implica em overhead, que pode ter uma grande variação dependendo da técnica utilizada. Na tentativa de minimizar o overhead imposto pelas técnicas de detecção de CFEs, neste trabalho foi desenvolvida a técnica de detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip. O objetivo da técnica é detectar os blocos básicos suscetíveis do programa através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip e proteger apenas esses blocos básicos. A técnica foi avaliada em termos de sua taxa de cobertura de falhas e desempenho. Para avaliar a taxa de cobertura falhas foram realizadas várias campanhas de injeção de falhas nos programas da suíte de benchmarks Mibench. A avaliação de desempenho foi feita com base na quantidade de instruções de máquina executadas pelos benchmarks, comparando quantidade de instruções antes e depois da utilização da técnica detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis. Os resultados dos experimentos mostram que é possível reduzir em até 27,93% a quantidade de blocos básicos protegidos e ao mesmo tempo manter uma alta taxa de cobertura de falhas. Porém, em termos de desempenho, o ganho não ficou na mesma proporção da quantidade de blocos básicos não protegidos, ficando abaixo do esperado. / Radioactive particles hitting the hardware of computer systems may result in unexpected behavior during software execution. Such unexpected behavior may persist for the lifetime of the system or may have a limited duration. In the latter case, we have what is called a transient fault. Transient faults may cause the program instructions to execute in an incorrect sequence. This incorrect sequence is called a control flow error (CFE). Research show that between 33% to 77% of transient faults manifest themselves as CFEs, depending on the type of the processor. If the system does not perform any verification at runtime, a control flow error may be not detected, which can result in incorrect program execution. Systems projected to low-cost embedded applications, where cost and performance are the main factors, use software based techniques to improve system reliability. Software based techniques to detect CFEs are known as signature monitoring or signature checking. These techniques insert extra code in each basic block of the program in order to detect CFEs. This extra code add an undesirable overhead in the program, which can have large variation depending on the technique used. In the attempt to minimize the overhead added by CFEs detection techniques, this work developed a technique of detection and protection of susceptible basic blocks through systematic bit-flip analysis. The purpose of this technique is to detect the susceptible basic blocks of the program through the systematic bit-flip analysis and to protect only these basic blocks. The technique was evaluated based on its fault coverage rate and performance. To evaluate the fault coverage rate a fault injection campaing was performed in the programs of the Mibench benchmark suite. The performance evaluation was based in the number of instruction executed by each benchmark, comparing the number of instructions before and after the use of the proposed technique. The experimental results show that is possible to reduce up to 27,93% the amount of protected basic blocks, while keeping a high faults coverage hate. However, in terms of performance, the gain was not in the same proportion, being lower than expected.

Partículas radioativas, ao atingirem o hardware dos sistemas computacionais, podem resultar em comportamentos inesperados durante a execução de um software. Tais comportamentos inesperados podem persistir por toda a vida útil do sistema ou podem ter uma duração limitada. Nesse último caso, temos o que chamamos de falhas transientes. Falhas transientes podem fazer com que as instruções do programa executem em uma sequência incorreta, o que chamamos de erros de fluxo de controle (Control-flow errors - CFEs). Estudos mostram que entre 33% e 77% das falhas transientes que afetam o hardware se manifestam como erros de fluxo de controle, dependendo do tipo do processador. Se o sistema não realizar nenhuma verificação em tempo de execução, um erro de fluxo de controle pode não ser detectado, o que pode resultar em uma execução incorreta do programa. Sistemas projetados para aplicações de baixo custo voltados para sistemas embarcados, onde os custos e desempenho são os fatores principais, utilizam técnicas baseadas em software para aumentar a confiabilidade do sistema. As técnicas baseadas em software para detecção de CFEs são conhecidas como signature monitoring ou signature checking. Essas técnicas introduzem código extra em todos os blocos básicos do programa com a finalidade de detectar os CFEs. Esse código extra implica em overhead, que pode ter uma grande variação dependendo da técnica utilizada. Na tentativa de minimizar o overhead imposto pelas técnicas de detecção de CFEs, neste trabalho foi desenvolvida a técnica de detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip. O objetivo da técnica é detectar os blocos básicos suscetíveis do programa através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip e proteger apenas esses blocos básicos. A técnica foi avaliada em termos de sua taxa de cobertura de falhas e desempenho. Para avaliar a taxa de cobertura falhas foram realizadas várias campanhas de injeção de falhas nos programas da suíte de benchmarks Mibench. A avaliação de desempenho foi feita com base na quantidade de instruções de máquina executadas pelos benchmarks, comparando quantidade de instruções antes e depois da utilização da técnica detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis. Os resultados dos experimentos mostram que é possível reduzir em até 27,93% a quantidade de blocos básicos protegidos e ao mesmo tempo manter uma alta taxa de cobertura de falhas. Porém, em termos de desempenho, o ganho não ficou na mesma proporção da quantidade de blocos básicos não protegidos, ficando abaixo do esperado. / Radioactive particles hitting the hardware of computer systems may result in unexpected behavior during software execution. Such unexpected behavior may persist for the lifetime of the system or may have a limited duration. In the latter case, we have what is called a transient fault. Transient faults may cause the program instructions to execute in an incorrect sequence. This incorrect sequence is called a control flow error (CFE). Research show that between 33% to 77% of transient faults manifest themselves as CFEs, depending on the type of the processor. If the system does not perform any verification at runtime, a control flow error may be not detected, which can result in incorrect program execution. Systems projected to low-cost embedded applications, where cost and performance are the main factors, use software based techniques to improve system reliability. Software based techniques to detect CFEs are known as signature monitoring or signature checking. These techniques insert extra code in each basic block of the program in order to detect CFEs. This extra code add an undesirable overhead in the program, which can have large variation depending on the technique used. In the attempt to minimize the overhead added by CFEs detection techniques, this work developed a technique of detection and protection of susceptible basic blocks through systematic bit-flip analysis. The purpose of this technique is to detect the susceptible basic blocks of the program through the systematic bit-flip analysis and to protect only these basic blocks. The technique was evaluated based on its fault coverage rate and performance. To evaluate the fault coverage rate a fault injection campaing was performed in the programs of the Mibench benchmark suite. The performance evaluation was based in the number of instruction executed by each benchmark, comparing the number of instructions before and after the use of the proposed technique. The experimental results show that is possible to reduce up to 27,93% the amount of protected basic blocks, while keeping a high faults coverage hate. However, in terms of performance, the gain was not in the same proportion, being lower than expected.

Este trabalho apresenta uma ferramenta configurável, denominada de CFT-tool, capaz de aplicar automaticamente técnicas de detecção de erros em software com o objetivo de proteger processadores com diferentes arquiteturas e organizações contra falhas transientes no hardware. As técnicas baseadas em redundância e comparação são aplicadas pela CFT-tool no código assembly de um programa desprotegido, compilado para a arquitetura alvo. A ferramenta desenvolvida foi validada utilizando dois processadores distintos: miniMIPS e LEON3. O processador miniMIPS foi utilizado para verificar a eficiência, em termos de taxa de detecção de erros, tempo de execução e ocupação de memória, das técnicas de detecção em software aplicadas pela CFT-tool, comparando os resultados obtidos com os presentes na literatura. O processador LEON3 foi selecionado por ser amplamente utilizado em aplicações espaciais e por ser baseado em uma arquitetura diferente da arquitetura do processador miniMIPS. Com o processador LEON3 é verificada a configurabilidade da CFT-tool, isto é, a capacidade dela de aplicar técnicas de detecção em software em um código compilado para um diferente processador, o mantendo funcional e sendo capaz de detectar erros. A CFT-tool pode ser utilizada para proteger programas para outras arquiteturas e organizações através da modificação dos arquivos de configuração da ferramenta. A configuração das técnicas é definida segundo as especificações da aplicação, recursos do processador e seleções do usuário. Programas foram protegidos e falhas foram injetadas em nível lógico em ambos os processadores. Para o processador miniMIPS, as taxas de detecção de erros, os tempos de execução e as ocupações de memórias dos programas protegidos se mostraram compatíveis com os resultados presentes na literatura. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para o processador LEON3. Diferenças entre os resultados ocorrem devido às características da arquitetura. A ferramenta CFT-tool por ser configurável pode proteger o código na integralidade ou selecionar partes do código e registradores que serão redundantes e protegidos. A vantagem de proteger parte do código é reduzir o custo final em termos de tempo de processamento e ocupação de memória. Uma análise do impacto da seleção seletiva de registradores na taxa de detecção de erros é apresentada. E diretivas de alcançar um comprometimento ótimo entre quantidade de registradores protegidos, taxa de detecção de erros e custo são discutidas. / This work presents a configurable tool, called CFT-tool, capable of automatically applying software-based error detection techniques aiming to protect processors with different architectures and organizations against transient faults in the hardware. The techniques are based on redundancy and comparison. They are applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of an unprotected program, compiled to the target architecture. The developed tool was validated using two distinct processors: miniMIPS and LEON3. The miniMIPS processor has been utilized to verify the efficiency of the software-based techniques applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of unprotected programs in terms of error detection rate, runtime and memory occupation, comparing the obtained results with those presented in the literature. The LEON3 processor was selected because it is largely adopted in space applications and because it is based on a different architecture that miniMIPS processor. The configurability of the CFT-tool is verified with the LEON3 processor, that is, the capability of the tool at applying software-based detection techniques in a code compiled to a different processor, maintaining it functional and capable of detecting errors. The CFT-tool can be utilized to protect programs compiled to other architectures and organizations by modifying the configuration files of the tool. The configuration of the techniques is defined by the specifications of the application, processor resources and selections of the user. Programs were protected and faults were injected in logical level in both processors. When using the miniMIPS processor, the error detection rates, runtimes and memory occupations of the protected programs are comparable to the results presents in the literature. Similar results are reached with the LEON3 processor. Differences between the results are due to architecture features. The CFT-tool can be configurable to protect the entire code or to select portions of the code or registers that will be redundant and protected. The advantage of protecting portions of the code is to reduce the final cost in terms of runtime and memory occupation. An analysis of the impact of selective selection of registers in the error detection rate is also presented. And policies to reach an optimum committal between amount of protected registers, error detection rate and cost are discussed.

Partículas radioativas, ao atingirem o hardware dos sistemas computacionais, podem resultar em comportamentos inesperados durante a execução de um software. Tais comportamentos inesperados podem persistir por toda a vida útil do sistema ou podem ter uma duração limitada. Nesse último caso, temos o que chamamos de falhas transientes. Falhas transientes podem fazer com que as instruções do programa executem em uma sequência incorreta, o que chamamos de erros de fluxo de controle (Control-flow errors - CFEs). Estudos mostram que entre 33% e 77% das falhas transientes que afetam o hardware se manifestam como erros de fluxo de controle, dependendo do tipo do processador. Se o sistema não realizar nenhuma verificação em tempo de execução, um erro de fluxo de controle pode não ser detectado, o que pode resultar em uma execução incorreta do programa. Sistemas projetados para aplicações de baixo custo voltados para sistemas embarcados, onde os custos e desempenho são os fatores principais, utilizam técnicas baseadas em software para aumentar a confiabilidade do sistema. As técnicas baseadas em software para detecção de CFEs são conhecidas como signature monitoring ou signature checking. Essas técnicas introduzem código extra em todos os blocos básicos do programa com a finalidade de detectar os CFEs. Esse código extra implica em overhead, que pode ter uma grande variação dependendo da técnica utilizada. Na tentativa de minimizar o overhead imposto pelas técnicas de detecção de CFEs, neste trabalho foi desenvolvida a técnica de detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip. O objetivo da técnica é detectar os blocos básicos suscetíveis do programa através da análise sistemática de single bit-flip e proteger apenas esses blocos básicos. A técnica foi avaliada em termos de sua taxa de cobertura de falhas e desempenho. Para avaliar a taxa de cobertura falhas foram realizadas várias campanhas de injeção de falhas nos programas da suíte de benchmarks Mibench. A avaliação de desempenho foi feita com base na quantidade de instruções de máquina executadas pelos benchmarks, comparando quantidade de instruções antes e depois da utilização da técnica detecção e proteção de blocos básicos suscetíveis. Os resultados dos experimentos mostram que é possível reduzir em até 27,93% a quantidade de blocos básicos protegidos e ao mesmo tempo manter uma alta taxa de cobertura de falhas. Porém, em termos de desempenho, o ganho não ficou na mesma proporção da quantidade de blocos básicos não protegidos, ficando abaixo do esperado. / Radioactive particles hitting the hardware of computer systems may result in unexpected behavior during software execution. Such unexpected behavior may persist for the lifetime of the system or may have a limited duration. In the latter case, we have what is called a transient fault. Transient faults may cause the program instructions to execute in an incorrect sequence. This incorrect sequence is called a control flow error (CFE). Research show that between 33% to 77% of transient faults manifest themselves as CFEs, depending on the type of the processor. If the system does not perform any verification at runtime, a control flow error may be not detected, which can result in incorrect program execution. Systems projected to low-cost embedded applications, where cost and performance are the main factors, use software based techniques to improve system reliability. Software based techniques to detect CFEs are known as signature monitoring or signature checking. These techniques insert extra code in each basic block of the program in order to detect CFEs. This extra code add an undesirable overhead in the program, which can have large variation depending on the technique used. In the attempt to minimize the overhead added by CFEs detection techniques, this work developed a technique of detection and protection of susceptible basic blocks through systematic bit-flip analysis. The purpose of this technique is to detect the susceptible basic blocks of the program through the systematic bit-flip analysis and to protect only these basic blocks. The technique was evaluated based on its fault coverage rate and performance. To evaluate the fault coverage rate a fault injection campaing was performed in the programs of the Mibench benchmark suite. The performance evaluation was based in the number of instruction executed by each benchmark, comparing the number of instructions before and after the use of the proposed technique. The experimental results show that is possible to reduce up to 27,93% the amount of protected basic blocks, while keeping a high faults coverage hate. However, in terms of performance, the gain was not in the same proportion, being lower than expected.

Este trabalho apresenta uma ferramenta configurável, denominada de CFT-tool, capaz de aplicar automaticamente técnicas de detecção de erros em software com o objetivo de proteger processadores com diferentes arquiteturas e organizações contra falhas transientes no hardware. As técnicas baseadas em redundância e comparação são aplicadas pela CFT-tool no código assembly de um programa desprotegido, compilado para a arquitetura alvo. A ferramenta desenvolvida foi validada utilizando dois processadores distintos: miniMIPS e LEON3. O processador miniMIPS foi utilizado para verificar a eficiência, em termos de taxa de detecção de erros, tempo de execução e ocupação de memória, das técnicas de detecção em software aplicadas pela CFT-tool, comparando os resultados obtidos com os presentes na literatura. O processador LEON3 foi selecionado por ser amplamente utilizado em aplicações espaciais e por ser baseado em uma arquitetura diferente da arquitetura do processador miniMIPS. Com o processador LEON3 é verificada a configurabilidade da CFT-tool, isto é, a capacidade dela de aplicar técnicas de detecção em software em um código compilado para um diferente processador, o mantendo funcional e sendo capaz de detectar erros. A CFT-tool pode ser utilizada para proteger programas para outras arquiteturas e organizações através da modificação dos arquivos de configuração da ferramenta. A configuração das técnicas é definida segundo as especificações da aplicação, recursos do processador e seleções do usuário. Programas foram protegidos e falhas foram injetadas em nível lógico em ambos os processadores. Para o processador miniMIPS, as taxas de detecção de erros, os tempos de execução e as ocupações de memórias dos programas protegidos se mostraram compatíveis com os resultados presentes na literatura. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para o processador LEON3. Diferenças entre os resultados ocorrem devido às características da arquitetura. A ferramenta CFT-tool por ser configurável pode proteger o código na integralidade ou selecionar partes do código e registradores que serão redundantes e protegidos. A vantagem de proteger parte do código é reduzir o custo final em termos de tempo de processamento e ocupação de memória. Uma análise do impacto da seleção seletiva de registradores na taxa de detecção de erros é apresentada. E diretivas de alcançar um comprometimento ótimo entre quantidade de registradores protegidos, taxa de detecção de erros e custo são discutidas. / This work presents a configurable tool, called CFT-tool, capable of automatically applying software-based error detection techniques aiming to protect processors with different architectures and organizations against transient faults in the hardware. The techniques are based on redundancy and comparison. They are applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of an unprotected program, compiled to the target architecture. The developed tool was validated using two distinct processors: miniMIPS and LEON3. The miniMIPS processor has been utilized to verify the efficiency of the software-based techniques applied by CFT-tool in the assembly code of unprotected programs in terms of error detection rate, runtime and memory occupation, comparing the obtained results with those presented in the literature. The LEON3 processor was selected because it is largely adopted in space applications and because it is based on a different architecture that miniMIPS processor. The configurability of the CFT-tool is verified with the LEON3 processor, that is, the capability of the tool at applying software-based detection techniques in a code compiled to a different processor, maintaining it functional and capable of detecting errors. The CFT-tool can be utilized to protect programs compiled to other architectures and organizations by modifying the configuration files of the tool. The configuration of the techniques is defined by the specifications of the application, processor resources and selections of the user. Programs were protected and faults were injected in logical level in both processors. When using the miniMIPS processor, the error detection rates, runtimes and memory occupations of the protected programs are comparable to the results presents in the literature. Similar results are reached with the LEON3 processor. Differences between the results are due to architecture features. The CFT-tool can be configurable to protect the entire code or to select portions of the code or registers that will be redundant and protected. The advantage of protecting portions of the code is to reduce the final cost in terms of runtime and memory occupation. An analysis of the impact of selective selection of registers in the error detection rate is also presented. And policies to reach an optimum committal between amount of protected registers, error detection rate and cost are discussed.

The Eskom East Grid Traction Network (EGTN) supplying traction loads and distribution networks has experienced at least one surge arrester failure over the past ten years. These failures results in poor network reliability and customer dissatisfactions which are often overlooked. This is because reliability indices used in the reliability evaluation of transmission and distribution networks are different. It is suspected that fast transient faults in this network initiate system faults leading to surge arrester design parameter exceedances and poor network insulation coordination. Preliminary investigations in network suggest that transient studies were not done during network planning and design stages. This may have resulted in the lack of surge arrester parameter evaluations under transient conditions leading to improper surge arresters being selected and installed in this network resulting in surge arrester failures that are now evident. These failures may also have been exacerbated by the dynamic nature of traction loads as they are highly unbalanced, have poor power factors and emit high voltage distortions. Poor in-service conditions such as defects, insulation partial discharges and overheating, bolted faults in the network and quality of supply emissions can also contribute to surge arrester failures. To address problems arising with different reliability indices in these networks the reliability of the EGTN is evaluated. In this work the reliability evaluation of the EGTN is done by computing common distribution reliability indices using analytic and simulation methods. This is done by applying the analytic method in the EGTN by assessing network failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) when the surge arrester fails in this network. The simulation method is applied by applying and modifying the MATLAB code proposed by Shavuka et al. [1]. These reliability indices are then compared with transmission reliability indices over the same period. This attempts to standardize reliability evaluations in these networks. To assess the impact of transient faults in the surge arrester parameter evaluation the EGTN is modelled and simulated by initiating transient faults sequentially in the network at different nodes and under different loading conditions. This is done by using Power System Blockset (PSB), Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT) and Alternate Transient Program (ATP) simulation tools and computing important surge arrester parameters i.e. continuous operating voltage, rated voltage, discharge current and energy absorption capability (EAC). These parameters are assessed by in the EGTN by evaluating computed surge arrester parameters against parameters provided by manufacturers, the Eskom 88 kV surge arrester specification and those parameters recommended in IEC 60099-4. To assess the impact and contribution of in-service conditions, faults and quality of supply emissions in surge arrester failures these contributing factors are investigated by assessing infra-red scans, fault analysis reports, results of the sampled faulted surge arrester in this network and quality of supply parameters around the time of failures. This study found that Eskom transmission and distribution network reliability indices can be standardized as distribution reliability indices i.e. SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, ASAI and ASUI indices are similar to Eskom transmission indices i.e. SM, NOI, circuit availability index and circuit unavailability index respectively. Transient simulations in this study showed that certain surge arresters in the EGTN had their rated surge arrester parameters exceeded under certain transient conditions and loading conditions. These surge arresters failed as their discharge currents and EACs were exceeded under heavy and light network loading conditions. This study concluded that surge arresters whose discharge currents and EACs exceeded were improperly evaluated and selected prior to their installations in the EGTN. This study found the EAC to be the most import parameter in surge arrester performance evaluations. The Eskom 88 kV surge arrester specification was found to be inadequate, inaccurate and ambiguous as a number of inconsistencies in the usage of IEEE and IEC classified systems terminology were found. It was concluded that these inconsistencies may have led to confusions for manufacturers during surge arrester designs and selections in the EGTN. The evaluation of fault reports showed that two surge arrester failures in this network were caused by hardware failures such as conductor failure and poor network operating as the line was continuously closed onto a fault. There was no evidence that poor in-service and quality of supply emissions contributed to surge arrester failures in this network. PSB, PSAT and ATP simulation tools were found adequate in modelling and simulating the EGTN. However the PSB tool was found to be slow as the network expanded and the PSAT required user defined surge arrester models requiring detailed manufacture data sheets which are not readily available. ATP was found to be superior in terms of speed and accuracy in comparison to the PSB and PSAT tools. The MATLAB code proposed by Shavuka et al. [1] was found to be suitable and accurate in assessing transmission networks as EGTN's reliability indices computed from this code were comparable to benchmarked Eskom distribution reliability indices. The work carried out in this research will assist in improving surge arrester performance evaluations, the current surge arrester specification and surge arrester selections. Simulation tools utilized in this work show great potential in achieving this. Reliability studies conducted in this work will assist in standardizing reliability indices between Eskom's transmission and distribution divisions. In-service condition assessment carried out in this work will improve surge arrester condition monitoring and preventive maintenance practices.

<p>Safety-critical applications have to function correctly even in presence of faults. This thesis deals with techniques for tolerating effects of transient and intermittent faults. Reexecution, software replication, and rollback recovery with checkpointing are used to provide the required level of fault tolerance. These techniques are considered in the context of distributed real-time systems with non-preemptive static cyclic scheduling.</p><p>Safety-critical applications have strict time and cost constrains, which means that not only faults have to be tolerated but also the constraints should be satisfied. Hence, efficient system design approaches with consideration of fault tolerance are required.</p><p>The thesis proposes several design optimization strategies and scheduling techniques that take fault tolerance into account. The design optimization tasks addressed include, among others, process mapping, fault tolerance policy assignment, and checkpoint distribution.</p><p>Dedicated scheduling techniques and mapping optimization strategies are also proposed to handle customized transparency requirements associated with processes and messages. By providing fault containment, transparency can, potentially, improve testability and debugability of fault-tolerant applications.</p><p>The efficiency of the proposed scheduling techniques and design optimization strategies is evaluated with extensive experiments conducted on a number of synthetic applications and a real-life example. The experimental results show that considering fault tolerance during system-level design optimization is essential when designing cost-effective fault-tolerant embedded systems.</p>

The occurrence of transient faults like soft errors in computer circuits poses a significant challenge to the reliability of computer systems. Soft error, which occurs when the energetic neutrons coming from space or the alpha particles arising out of packaging materials hit the transistors, may manifest themselves as a bit flip in the memory element or as a transient glitch generated at any internal node of combinational logic, which may subsequently propagate to and be captured in a latch. Although the problem of soft errors was earlier only a concern for space applications, aggressive technology scaling trends have exacerbated the problem to modern VLSI systems even for terrestrial applications. In this dissertation, we explore techniques at all levels of the design flow to reduce the vulnerability of VLSI systems against soft errors without compromising on other design metrics like delay, area and power. We propose new models for estimating soft errors for storage structures and combinational logic. While soft errors in caches are estimated using the vulnerability metric, soft errors in logic circuits are estimated using two new metrics called the glitch enabling probability (GEP) and the cumulative probability of observability (CPO). These metrics, based on signal probabilities of nets, accurately model soft errors in radiation-aware synthesis algorithms and helps in efficient exploration of the design solution space during optimization. At the physical design level, we leverage the use of larger netlengths to provide larger RC ladders for effectively filtering out the transient glitches. Towards this, a new heuristic has been developed to selectively assign larger wirelengths to certain critical nets. This reduces the delay and area overhead while improving the immunity to soft errors. Based on this, we propose two placement algorithms based on simulated annealing and quadratic programming which significantly reduce the soft error rates of circuits. At the circuit level, we develop techniques for hardening circuit nodes using a novel radiation jammer technique. The proposed technique is based on the principles of a RC differentiator and is used to isolate the driven cell from the driving cell which is being hit by a radiation strike. Since the blind insertion of radiation blocker cells on all circuit nodes is expensive, candidate nodes are selected for insertion of these cells using a new metric called the probability of radiation blocker circuit insertion (PRI). We investigate a gate sizing algorithm, at the logic level, in which we simultaneously optimize both the soft error rate (SER) and the crosstalk noise besides the power and performance of circuits while considering the effect of process variations. The reliability centric gate sizing technique has been formulated as a mathematical program and is efficiently solved. At the architectural level, we develop solutions for the correction of multi-bit errors in large L2 caches by controlling or mining the redundancy in the memory hierarchy and methods to increase the amount of redundancy in the memory hierarchy by employing a redundancy-based replacement policy, in which the amount of redundancy is controlled using a user defined redundancy threshold. The novel architectures and the new reliability-centric synthesis algorithms proposed for the various design abstraction levels have been shown to achieve significant reduction of soft error rates in current nanometer circuits. The design techniques, algorithms and architectures can be integrated into existing design flows. A VLSI system implementation can leverage on the architectural solutions for the reliability of the caches while the custom hardware synthesized for the VLSI system can be protected against radiation strikes by utilizing the circuit level, logic level and layout level optimization algorithms that have been developed.

Safety-critical applications have to function correctly even in presence of faults. This thesis deals with techniques for tolerating effects of transient and intermittent faults. Reexecution, software replication, and rollback recovery with checkpointing are used to provide the required level of fault tolerance. These techniques are considered in the context of distributed real-time systems with non-preemptive static cyclic scheduling. Safety-critical applications have strict time and cost constrains, which means that not only faults have to be tolerated but also the constraints should be satisfied. Hence, efficient system design approaches with consideration of fault tolerance are required. The thesis proposes several design optimization strategies and scheduling techniques that take fault tolerance into account. The design optimization tasks addressed include, among others, process mapping, fault tolerance policy assignment, and checkpoint distribution. Dedicated scheduling techniques and mapping optimization strategies are also proposed to handle customized transparency requirements associated with processes and messages. By providing fault containment, transparency can, potentially, improve testability and debugability of fault-tolerant applications. The efficiency of the proposed scheduling techniques and design optimization strategies is evaluated with extensive experiments conducted on a number of synthetic applications and a real-life example. The experimental results show that considering fault tolerance during system-level design optimization is essential when designing cost-effective fault-tolerant embedded systems.